Rowing and the rowing machine: technique, training, and the back and rib injuries rowers get

Whole body, mostly aerobic

A 2,000 m race on the machine was about 83% aerobic in trained junior rowers. Each stroke goes legs, then body, then arms on the drive, and back in reverse.

Sources 1, 2

The low back takes the most injuries

The low back is the commonest injury site in elite, club, junior and masters rowers. Over a year, 53% of New Zealand's international rowers had at least one episode of low back pain.

Sources 3, 4, 5

Rib stress injuries cost the most time

8 to 16% of elite rowers have a rib stress fracture over a career, and in Australia's national team a fracture cost a median of 69 days before full training on the water. No way of preventing them has been tested.

Sources 6, 7, 8

Damper 3 to 5, and keep the drag low

The damper changes how each stroke feels, not how hard the workout is, and a low drag puts less force through your spine, especially if you're new or young.

Sources 9, 10

Strength training helps

In trials against other training, strength training made rowers a little stronger and faster, at every level from recreational to elite.

Source 11

Don't overdo it on the machine, and be able to float

British Rowing had three reports in five months of indoor rowers whose hearts went into a dangerous rhythm, and one died, so don't let anyone push you into overexertion. On the water, everyone should be able to float unaided for 5 minutes.

Sources 12, 13

How it loads the body

British Rowing calls rowing "a power endurance activity", "whole-body ... non-weight bearing and low impact", in which "the spine is loaded in a sitting position ... repeated multiple times a minute and for the full duration of the session". Tiredness increases how much the lower back bends at the catch, the start of each stroke, more on the machine than on the water.

Sources 10, 14

Mostly aerobic

In 18 trained junior men, a 2,000 m ergometer race drew 17% of its energy from anaerobic sources, so about 83% was aerobic, and a 1,500 m race 22%. Leg press or squat strength and pulling strength went closely with faster ergometer times across studies.

Sources 1, 15

What it costs

The Compendium of Physical Activities rates the rowing machine at 5.0 METs (multiples of your resting energy use) under 100 watts, which is moderate, 7.5 at 100 to 149 watts, 11.0 at 150 to 199 watts and 14.0 at 200 watts or more. On the water, rowing for pleasure is rated at 3.5 METs, rowing at 4.0 to 5.9 mph (6.4 to 9.5 km/h) at 5.8, and crew or sculling competition at 12.0.

Sources 16, 17

On the water and on the machine

In Australia's national team over 8 seasons, 68% of injuries happened in on-water training, and 83% were overuse injuries rather than sudden ones.

Source 4

What takes the load

The lower back, the ribs and chest wall, and the knees take most of it; the forearms and wrists matter in juniors, and the shoulders and elbows in masters rowers.

Sources 4, 18, 3, 6, 7, 19, 20

How often rowers get hurtEmerging evidence

Studies count injuries per 1,000 days, hours, sessions or athlete-exposures, or as the share of rowers injured, so read each line on its own. Rowing has some of the lowest injury rates of Olympic sports in competition, but overuse injuries, mainly to the back and ribs, cost a lot of training time (our summary).

• Australia's national team, 2009 to 2016 (153 rowers): 4.1 to 6.4 injuries per 1,000 athlete days, losing 9.2% of training days.
• Irish international rowers (20), over 12 months: 3.67 injuries per 1,000 hours.
• Senior international rowers (634), recalling 12 months: 0.92 injuries per rower a year, or 1.75 per 1,000 sessions.
• International masters rowers (743), recalling 12 months: 0.48 injuries per rower a year, or 2.25 per 1,000 sessions.
• UK amateur club rowers (160): 5.7 injuries per 1,000 sessions, with more injuries in those who trained more.
• Junior world championship rowers (398), one season: 110 injuries per 100 girls and 91 per 100 boys.
• US high school rowing: 8.60 injuries per 1,000 athlete-exposures in girls and 2.39 in boys.
• US college women in one top-division team over 5 years: 52% of the squad injured, most often the low back, then the ribs and hips.
• Olympic Games: 0 to 3% of rowers injured at Rio 2016 and 1 to 2% at Tokyo 2020.

Sources 4, 18, 21, 20, 5, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25

Low back painEmerging evidence

The low back is the commonest injury site at every level, and in the studies that followed rowers for a year, 32 to 51% had low back pain. In New Zealand's international rowers there were 1.67 episodes per 1,000 hours, and among 365 school rowers, 94% of boys and 78% of girls had had low back pain at some point. Our back pain and herniated disc guides cover it, and our spondylolisthesis guide covers a teenager's back pain that's worse arching backwards.

Sources 26, 3, 27

Rib stress injuriesEmerging evidence

Rib stress fractures affect 8 to 16% of elite rowers over a career, against 2% of university and 1% of junior elite rowers, mostly ribs 4 to 8 at the side of the chest. Chest wall injuries were the biggest injury burden in Australia's national team. In its 2012 to 2016 cycle, 4 to 15% of rowers had a rib stress injury in a given period, a fracture cost a median of 69 days before full on-water training and a stress reaction 57 days, and there were more in the year before the Olympics.

A review of 17 studies found rowers usually lost 4 to 6 weeks, so elite rowers can take longer than that. Our rib injury guide covers them.

Sources 6, 4, 7, 8

Knees, wrists, hips and neckEmerging evidence

The knee is the second commonest site in several groups, and junior rowers who ran more than once a week had more overuse knee injuries. The forearm and wrist came third in juniors, the hip and groin took 16% of injuries in college women, and the neck 11% in Irish international rowers. Our knee pain, runner's knee, wrist pain, de Quervain's tenosynovitis, hip pain and neck pain guides cover them.

Sources 18, 19, 20, 23

Who gets back painEmerging evidence

A previous episode was the one consistent risk factor across 10 studies, with 2.65 times the odds of another, and it still went with back pain years later in former elite athletes. More training went with more back pain: over 550 hours a year went with 2.5 times the odds years later, and so did more machine training. Each year of age added a little risk in international rowers. Women in Australia's team had 1.4 times the men's risk of chest wall injuries and half their risk of lumbar ones, and girls had more injuries than boys at school. Sex, body size, level, boat type and years rowing weren't consistently linked with back pain. All of these are associations.

Sources 28, 29, 3, 18, 26, 4, 22

The 2021 consensus on low back painStrong evidence

An international consensus for elite and sub-elite adult rowers says that prevention and management of low back pain in rowers "should include education on risk factors, rowing biomechanics and training load. If treatment is needed, non-invasive management, including early unloading from aggravating activities, effective pain control and exercise therapy should be considered. Fitness should be maintained with load management and progression to full training and competition."

Source 30

The one prevention study: schoolgirl rowersEmerging evidence

In Western Australia, 90 schoolgirl rowers at one school had an individual exercise programme based on a screening in week 1, a back pain education session with a physiotherapist in week 2, and a conditioning programme off the water with a PE teacher through the season, compared with 131 rowers at three other schools. They had less new low back pain at mid-season and at the end of the season, better pain and disability scores, and better fitness and sitting posture.

It wasn't randomised, and the abstract doesn't give the exercises, doses, effect sizes or how many sessions the girls did.

Source 31

Training load: build graduallyEmerging evidence

New low back pain tracked monthly training hours closely in international rowers, machine training load tracked injuries, and more training went with more injuries in club rowers. In former college rowers, back pain went with machine sessions over 30 minutes, rowing before 16, weights training and big "hatchet" blades. These are associations, but they point the same way: add volume, and especially machine time, gradually.

Sources 3, 18, 5, 29, 26, 32

Avoid big changes all at onceMixed evidence

Junior sweep rowers who changed side during the season had more sudden-onset back injuries. Dr Anders Vinther, a research physiotherapist who studies rowers' rib injuries, told World Rowing that "the largest risk factor for rib stress injury remains big changes in training", including switching between sweep and sculling, changing side, and raising volume or intensity, and that combining changes raises the risk. That's an expert view, not a tested rule.

Sources 19, 33

Technique and tirednessEmerging evidence

Across 22 studies, tiredness increased bending of the lower back at the catch, more on the machine. Rowers without back pain kept a neutral or forward-tilted pelvis at the catch and a flatter lower back at the finish. Our reading: stop a piece when your posture goes.

Source 14

Fixed or moving machinesMixed evidence

When Australia's national team moved its machine tests onto ergometers on slides, low back injuries fell. But a systematic review found "insufficient evidence to recommend one ergometer type (fixed vs dynamic) over the other".

Sources 4, 14

Rib stress injuries: suggestions, not proofMixed evidence

A review of 17 studies found "insufficient or conflicting evidence" for every suspected risk factor and no prevention studies. Suggestions include strengthening the serratus anterior (a muscle on the side of the ribs) and the leg muscles, training on ergometers on slides, calcium and vitamin D, avoiding big training changes, and eating enough: low energy intake, called relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs), harms bone in women and men. None has been tested.

Seeing someone early matters most: "When you start to feel a small amount of pain, just a little pain, that is when you need to see a physio or a doctor". Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the usual scan, and the Great Britain Rowing Team has a guideline for diagnosis and management. Follow your medical team on returning.

Sources 8, 6, 33, 34, 7, 35

Carrying boatsEmerging evidence

Adolescent girls more often than boys said lifting the boat made their back pain worse. Our suggestion: lift as a crew, bend from the hips and knees, and swap shoulders (editorial).

Source 27

What isn't shownMixed evidence

Juniors who stretched for more than 10 minutes after training reported fewer sudden injuries, but that's an association, and across sports stretching made no difference to injuries in trials. We found no trial of a strength or core programme to prevent back pain in rowers; the consensus relies on education and load.

Sources 19, 36, 30

If your back already hurtsEmerging evidence

In 36 adolescent male rowers with back pain, 8 weeks of an individual approach to their beliefs, movement, conditioning and lifestyle cut pain during a 15-minute machine test by 2.4 points out of 10 more than the coaches' usual care, and lasted to 12 weeks. In 60 elite adolescent male rowers, 12 weeks of hamstring exercises, 4 times a week, reduced pain more than kinesiology tape. Our back pain guide covers the rest.

Sources 37, 38

Strength training makes rowers a little fasterEmerging evidence

In trials that compared strength training with other training, it improved leg strength moderately and rowing performance a little, in recreational, sub-elite and elite rowers, whatever the type of strength training. In well-trained to elite rowers, 8 weeks of heavy strength training 3 times a week slightly raised the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity and their peak oxygen uptake.

Sources 11, 39

Which strength mattersEmerging evidence

Leg press or squat strength and pulling strength went closely with ergometer performance across studies. These are associations.

Source 15

How muchEmerging evidence

A review suggests 2 to 6 sets of 4 to 12 repetitions, three sessions a week, out of the racing season, and found strength was kept in season with infrequent but heavy sessions, once or twice a week at about three-quarters of maximum.

Source 40

Timing around key sessionsEmerging evidence

In 8 highly trained club rowers, a heavy strength session cut jump height and maximal power strokes by 3 to 10% for up to 48 hours, but didn't slow a 2,000 m machine test a day or two later. Across 43 studies, combining strength and endurance training blunted explosive gains most when both were in the same session.

Sources 41, 42

EnduranceEmerging evidence

In 14 national elite rowers doing most of their training at low intensity, polarised and pyramidal spreads of intensity brought the same 2,000 m gains over 11 weeks. Our zone 2 guide reaches the same "no clear winner" verdict.

Source 43

Indoor rowing for healthEmerging evidence

In post-menopausal women aged about 66, 10 weeks of rowing 3 times a week for 30 minutes at 60 to 80% of peak heart rate raised fitness. In 38 older adults with mild knee osteoarthritis, 12 weeks of computer-guided rowing twice a week improved symptoms and hip and knee strength more than usual resistance exercise. Both trials were small.

Sources 44, 45

Fitting it into a weekEmerging evidence

Our suggestion: most rowing at an easy, conversational effort, with one or two harder sessions a week; strength twice a week in season and three times out of it, legs and pulling first; heavy legs on a different day from key tests, or after the rowing session; and young rowers within British Rowing's session limits, with core and conditioning before heavy lifting (editorial).

Sources 40, 41, 43, 46

Legs, body, armsStrong evidence

Concept2 describes four parts. At the catch, "Arms are straight; head is neutral ... Upper body is leaning forward from the hips ... Shins are vertical". The drive starts by "pressing with your legs, and then swing the back through the vertical position before finally adding the arm pull". At the finish you're "leaning back slightly" with the "handle ... held lightly below your ribs" and "Wrists should be flat". The recovery reverses it: "Extend your arms ... before leaning from the hips ... Once your hands have cleared your knees, allow your knees to bend".

Source 2

Set the damper to 3 to 5Strong evidence

On an air-resistance machine, the damper "affects how it feels but does not directly affect the resistance": "the harder you pull, the more resistance you will feel". Concept2 recommends starting out on a damper setting of 3 to 5, and warns that a high setting "can exhaust your muscles before you reap the full cardiovascular benefit". British Rowing: "The drag factor/resistance should be kept low for all rowers, but especially beginners and younger participants", because a low drag "significantly decreases the force across the spine".

Sources 9, 10

Keep sessions short while you learnEmerging evidence

In 1,632 former US college rowers, ergometer sessions longer than 30 minutes were among the things linked with back pain, and tiredness rounds the lower back more at the catch. Our indoor rowing guide advises keeping single sessions under about 30 minutes while the stroke is new.

Sources 32, 14

British Rowing's limits by levelStrong evidence

British Rowing's "How Much How Often" guidance sets sessions by level, and says "The stage at which rowers become tired, where technique and posture fluctuate, is where the rower is most prone to injury". Juniors aged 15 and under, and older rowers new to strength training, do core and conditioning only, and on the water, juniors aged 14 and under should scull only.

• Level 1, any new rower aged 11 and over: 2 skill sessions of 30 to 40 minutes a week.
• Level 2, aged 13 and over: on average 3, at most 4, sessions of 45 to 60 minutes a week.
• Level 3, aged 15 and over: on average 4, at most 6, sessions a week; water sessions under 75 minutes and land sessions under 60.
• Level 4, aged 17 and over: on average 6, at most 8, sessions a week; water sessions under 90 minutes and land sessions under 80.

Source 46

British Rowing's youth guidanceStrong evidence

British Rowing doesn't recommend "a significant level of training and racing before age 11", asks for progression that is "gradual", with "caution/care ... when changing the quality, quantity, or frequency of the sessions", and wants a full warm-up and cool-down in every machine session, with the drag kept low.

Source 10

Indoor rowing: don't push into overexertionStrong evidence

RowSafe, British Rowing's safety guide: "Indoor rowing is usually a low risk activity but it is not risk free. There are serious risks from overexertion and using poor technique". It asks everyone to "Stop if it hurts", "Avoid encouraging others to overexert", "aim for small incremental improvements", warm up, set the drag appropriately, and tell the club, school or gym about any illness or injury and seek medical advice before continuing.

British Rowing's 2020 safety alert reported three indoor rowers in five months whose hearts went into dangerous rhythms; all needed cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and a defibrillator, and one died. It says "If you do not feel well then do not exercise", and asks coaches to think carefully before shouting at people on rowing machines.

Sources 13, 12

On the water: be able to floatStrong evidence

RowSafe: everyone taking part should be able to "Float unaided for at least five minutes", and ideally swim 50 m in rowing kit, tread water for 2 minutes and swim 5 m under water. In cold water, floating is better than swimming: "sudden unexpected immersion in cold water can cause an initial cold shock that affects muscular co-ordination and impairs the ability to float or swim", and hypothermia can follow. Anyone who can only float with a buoyancy aid should wear one.

The UK's National Health Service (NHS) says to go to A&E (accident and emergency) or call 999 if you think someone has hypothermia: move them somewhere sheltered, remove wet clothing and wrap them up.

Sources 13, 47

Head injuriesStrong evidence

Blades, boats and boathouse falls can cause concussion. If in doubt, sit them out, and follow the UK grassroots guidelines and our concussion guide: no competition before day 21. RowSafe gives a shorter break from sport, so follow the UK guidelines.

Sources 48, 13

If you haven't exercised for a while, or have a health condition

The NHS advises speaking to your GP first if you haven't exercised for some time, or if you have medical conditions or concerns. The Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire for Everyone (PAR-Q+) asks about a heart condition or high blood pressure, chest pain, dizziness or fainting, other long-term conditions and their medicines, and bone or joint problems, and asks you to see a qualified exercise professional before vigorous exercise if you're over 45 and not used to it. Start with easy rowing.

Sources 49, 50

A heart condition, chest pain, fainting or palpitations

Indoor rowers have had dangerous heart rhythms from overexertion, and RowSafe asks you to tell the club and seek medical advice. See your GP or heart team first, and do no all-out tests until you're cleared.

Sources 12, 13

Previous low back pain

It's the strongest predictor of the next episode. Keep sessions short and the drag low, build up gradually, and see a physiotherapist if it comes back.

Source 28

Osteoporosis or a past spinal fracture

Avoid deep rounding of the back under load, as our osteoporosis guide explains. Keep a long spine, hinge from the hips, and ask a physiotherapist.

Cancer that has spread to the bones

Cancer Research UK advises avoiding spinal twisting, including on the rowing machine, unless your team says otherwise, as our cancer guide explains. Ask your cancer team first.

Missed periods or repeated stress injuries

Low energy intake harms bone in women and men, and it's a suspected driver of rib injuries. See your GP, and eat enough for your training.

Sources 34, 33

Children

British Rowing doesn't recommend significant training or racing before 11, and limits sessions by level. Choose a club that follows its youth guidance.

Sources 46, 10

If you can't swim, or can only float with a buoyancy aid

Tell the club, wear a buoyancy aid, and do capsize training before you go out.

Source 13

In pregnancy

Don't start a new vigorous activity in pregnancy, as our pregnancy guide says. Talk to your midwife about keeping up the rowing you already do.

PoTS (postural tachycardia syndrome)

Seated exercise such as the rowing machine is a recommended way to start, as our PoTS guide explains.

Rib pain that builds with rowing

Pain at the side of the chest that builds with rowing, or hurts when you breathe deeply, cough or sneeze, needs a physiotherapist or doctor early, before it becomes a fracture. Our rib injury guide has more.

Sources 33, 6

Chest pain: call 999

Call 999 for sudden chest pain that doesn't go away, pain that spreads to your arms, neck, jaw, stomach or back, or chest pain with sweating, feeling sick, light-headedness or breathlessness. Stop at once if you feel faint, very breathless, or your heart is racing irregularly.

Sources 51, 12

Back pain with numbness or bladder problems: call 999

Loss of feeling around your genitals or bottom, new trouble controlling your bladder or bowels, or numbness or weakness in both legs needs 999 or A&E. Our back pain guide explains why.

After a capsize or a cold outing

Float first to get through the cold shock. Shivering, confusion, slurred speech or drowsiness afterwards may be hypothermia: go to A&E or call 999.

Sources 13, 47

A head injury

If in doubt, sit them out. Call 999 for red flags such as loss of consciousness, getting drowsier, repeated vomiting, a seizure or a worsening headache, and follow our concussion guide: no competition before day 21.

Source 48

"Rowing is low impact, so it can't hurt your back"Emerging evidence

It's low impact, but the low back is the commonest injury site at every level, and the spine is loaded many times a minute.

Sources 4, 21, 5, 10

"Damper 10 gives the best workout"Strong evidence

The damper changes how the stroke feels, not how hard the workout is. Start at 3 to 5; a low drag puts less force through your spine.

Sources 9, 10

"Rib pain is part of rowing: row through it"Emerging evidence

It can be a stress injury that costs about 10 weeks if it becomes a fracture. See someone early.

Sources 7, 33

"Rowing is all arms"Strong evidence

The drive is legs, then body, then arms, and leg strength goes with faster machine times.

Sources 2, 15

"Weights make rowers slower"Emerging evidence

Strength training improved rowing performance in trials, and slightly raised peak oxygen uptake in elite rowers.

Sources 11, 39

"Longer machine sessions are always better"Emerging evidence

Machine sessions over 30 minutes went with back pain in former college rowers, and tiredness rounds the lower back at the catch.

Sources 32, 14

"Stretching prevents rowing injuries"Mixed evidence

There's only an association in juniors, and trials across sports found no benefit.

Sources 19, 36