Trampolining: garden trampoline safety, trampoline parks, rebounding workouts and the sport

One at a time

RoSPA: 60% of injuries happen when more than one person is on the trampoline, and the lighter person is five times as likely to be hurt.

Sources 1, 2

No somersaults without coaching

Failed backflips caused 8 of 11 severe injuries in Finnish children. RoSPA: no somersaults or risky moves unless you're trained and highly skilled.

Sources 3, 1

Not for children under 6

RoSPA says trampolining isn't suitable for children under 6, and the AAP says children under 6 should never jump.

Sources 1, 4

Nets help, but aren't enough

Nets stop falls off, but most children in a UK emergency department were hurt without falling off, and injury rates didn't fall after nets came in.

Sources 5, 6, 7

Parks bring different injuries, not fewer

Children hurt at trampoline parks had more leg injuries and needed surgery more often than those hurt at home, though fewer had concussions.

Source 8

Rebounding: good for balance, so bounce tall

Small trials found mini-trampoline training improved balance and strength in older adults. Stand tall: hunched rebounding has been followed by fractures in the middle of the back.

Sources 9, 10

Garden and park trampolining

RoSPA calls trampolines "a relatively inexpensive source of enjoyment as well as aerobic activity" for children. The Compendium of Physical Activities gives recreational trampolining 6.3 metabolic equivalents (METs) and competitive trampolining 10.3, both from measurements.

Sources 1, 11

What the bed does

A trampoline stores and returns energy. With two people on it, one landing can launch the other (the AAP's "double bounce"), and the lighter person takes the worst of it: young children bouncing with a heavier child or adult can buckle the top of the shin bone.

Sources 4, 1, 12

The sportEmerging evidence

Trampoline gymnasts perform routines of somersaults and twists, and height (time in the air) counts towards the score. In a simulated competition, 15 elite trampolinists did about 252 jumps across two routines and a final, their heart rate peaked at 95% to 97% of maximum, and their jump height was still 4.8% down the next day. In junior elite trampolinists, isometric leg strength went with more time in the air, and in young trampolinists, jump height went with standing long jump, body size and trunk strength. These are mostly associations.

Sources 13, 14, 15

ReboundingEmerging evidence

Jogging and bouncing on a mini-trampoline is fairly low in intensity unless you add arm work: pumping light hand weights raised oxygen use and heart rate. In NASA's 1980 study of 8 young men, trampoline jumping spread the jolts more evenly through the body than running: lower at the ankle, but higher at the back and head. Our reading: rebounding spares the ankles some impact but loads the spine, which fits the mid-back fractures seen with hunched home bouncing.

Sources 16, 17, 10

What takes the load

The arms, in falls onto the hand and elbow; ankles and knees, in awkward landings and, at parks, harder landings; the neck, in falls onto the head and failed somersaults; the shin, in young children bouncing with heavier people; the spine, in hunched rebounding; and the pelvic floor, in repeated landings.

Sources 18, 2, 8, 3, 19, 20

What to train (our reading)

For the sport: leg and calf strength for height, quick, stiff ankles, landings, trunk strength in the tuck, pike and straddle shapes, and the pelvic floor. For rebounding: balance, leg strength and a tall posture.

How often people get hurtEmerging evidence

The numbers, by group:

• England: RoSPA estimates more than 13,000 trampoline injuries a year are treated in A&E (accident and emergency), scaled up from 372 cases at Oxfordshire hospitals in 27 months; about three-quarters happened at home, and 19% were in the most urgent triage groups. It's an estimate, not a count.
• A UK children's emergency department, May to September 2008: trampolines caused 1.5% of children's visits; an average of 2.6 people were on the trampoline, 31% of the injured had a fracture and 14% needed surgery.
• Children under 16 in a Finnish region, 2015 to 2017: 6.28 severe injuries per 100,000 children a year.
• The same region, 2006 to 2017: fractures at the top of the shin doubled, from 9.5 to 22.0 per 100,000 children a year.
• US children, 2012 to 2021: 4.2% of trampoline injuries treated in emergency departments were to the neck, mostly strains.
• 18 trampoline parks in Australia and the Middle East: 1.14 injuries per 1,000 hours of jumping, and 0.11 significant injuries.
• Three Olympic Games: 63 injuries per 1,000 registered trampoline gymnasts for men and 43 for women, fewer than in artistic gymnastics.
• Adults in an Australian trauma registry: of 50 with trampoline injuries, 78% needed surgery.

Sources 21, 5, 3, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25

ArmsEmerging evidence

In RoSPA's Oxford data, the commonest serious injuries were fractures of the elbow, wrist, forearm, hand and collarbone, in that order. In a French children's series, breaks just above the elbow and at the wrist were each 15.3% of fractures, and 16.5% of injuries needed a general anaesthetic; in 88 Irish children, 70% had arm fractures and 40% needed surgery. Our broken wrist, broken elbow, broken arm and broken collarbone guides cover these, and our child's broken elbow guide covers children's breaks just above the elbow.

Sources 21, 18, 26

Ankles and legsEmerging evidence

An ankle ligament injury was the commonest diagnosis (20%) in 556 injured jumpers in Norway, and ankles were 31% of injuries at an urban children's emergency department. Children hurt at parks had nearly three times the odds of a leg injury of those hurt at home. Our sprained ankle, broken ankle and broken leg guides cover these.

Sources 2, 27, 8

The "trampoline fracture" in young childrenEmerging evidence

Seven children aged 2 to 5 broke the top of the shin bone (a buckle fracture) while bouncing with a heavier child or adult. In a Finnish region, these fractures averaged 15.4 per 100,000 children a year, and 80% happened with several people bouncing. In another series, bouncing on trampolines or inflatable bouncers caused 44% of toddlers' buckle fractures at the top of the shin, and 80% of those happened with several people bouncing.

Sources 12, 19, 28

Knees in adultsEmerging evidence

In 229 trampoline knee injuries, adults had 7.8 times children's odds of an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear, and more often needed an operation. In 50 adults in a trauma registry, injuries were mostly to the legs and spine, and 52% hadn't recovered well 6 months later. Our ACL, meniscus tear and kneecap dislocation guides cover knee injuries.

Sources 29, 25

NecksEmerging evidence

Neck strains were 8% of injuries in Norway, with 2 neck fractures and a partial dislocation at the top of the neck. In the US in 1998, trampolines caused more than 6,500 neck injuries in children, most of them minor. Five of 11 severe Finnish childhood injuries were neck ligament injuries, mostly from failed backflips. At one Canadian children's hospital, 7 children had neck injuries from home trampolines in 12 years: 4 were left with lasting neurological damage and 1 died. The AAP lists paralysis among trampoline injuries. We don't have a guide to spinal injuries; the warning signs are below.

Sources 2, 3, 30, 31, 4

HeadsEmerging evidence

Cuts went with head injuries and were more common in children under 6. At a children's neurosurgery unit, under-5s were more likely to have a head injury and over-11s a spinal injury, and 1 of 44 children died. Concussions were less common at parks than on home trampolines. Our concussion guide covers the graduated return.

Sources 32, 33, 8

Mid-back fractures from reboundingEmerging evidence

Seven adults had 10 compression fractures in the middle of the back (the T5 to T8 vertebrae), with symptoms about 2.6 weeks after starting regular mini-trampoline workouts holding the bar with a hunched back. None had been shown how to bounce. Our spinal compression fracture guide covers recovery.

Source 10

Leaking urineEmerging evidence

80% of 35 elite young Swedish trampolinists leaked urine during training, about 28 g a session, despite good pelvic floor strength. Of 305 former trampolinists, 57% of those who'd competed and 48% of recreational jumpers still leaked, more with more training after their first period. A 2025 review found no treatment studies in gymnasts. Our pelvic floor guide explains what helps.

Sources 20, 34, 35

Who's at higher riskEmerging evidence

Associations in the studies:

• More than one jumper, especially a lighter or younger child with heavier ones: the youngest in a group was most often the one hurt.
• Somersaults and flips.
• Falls off the trampoline where there's no net.
• Children under 6, for head injuries, cuts and shin fractures.
• Bouncing with adults who've been drinking: RoSPA notes children have been hurt this way at garden parties.
• At parks, the high-performance and foam-pit areas.
• In the sport, the growth spurt and higher weekly training load.

Sources 2, 36, 37, 19, 3, 30, 38, 39, 32, 1, 23, 40

One at a timeEmerging evidence

More than two people were on the trampoline in 74% of 556 injuries in Norway, with up to nine at once; in Finland several jumpers were involved in 86%, and only 3 of 76 children were hurt bouncing alone. In Dublin, 57% were hurt with at least one other person on the trampoline. RoSPA: take turns, one at a time. Only 41.6% of Canadian parents knew to avoid several jumpers.

Sources 2, 36, 41, 5, 1, 42

No somersaults without coachingEmerging evidence

Failed backflips caused 8 of 11 severe Finnish childhood injuries, none under professional supervision; somersaults and falls lay behind the Canadian neck injuries; and at a trampoline park, somersaults and tricks were common causes, including an unstable neck fracture. RoSPA: learn somersaults "from experts at a properly organised trampoline club". Only 44.3% of Canadian parents knew to avoid stunts.

Sources 3, 30, 38, 21, 42

Nets and pads: worth having, not enoughMixed evidence

Nets stop falls off: falls from the trampoline were 22% of injuries in Norway, 38% in Finland and 67.1% in a Sydney trauma series. But in a UK emergency department, 68% of children were hurt without falling off, and RoSPA notes that nets "don't prevent awkward landings within the trampoline". In the US, the injuries pads and nets should prevent didn't fall after they came in, and in Australia, standards and nets had no visible effect on injury rates; the authors suggest nets may give parents false reassurance. Have a net and pads, but the rules matter more (our reading).

Sources 2, 36, 39, 5, 21, 6, 7

Keep small children offEmerging evidence

RoSPA: not for children under 6, not for toddlers at all, and from 3 to 6 only trampolines made for their age and size; hand rails on junior trampolines can cause head injuries. The AAP: under-6s should never jump. Young children had more head cuts and the shin fracture. Only 18.3% of Canadian parents knew the age advice.

Sources 1, 21, 4, 32, 12, 42

Supervision helps only if the rules are keptMixed evidence

RoSPA: "Adult supervision is no guarantee of safety. More than half of all trampoline accidents occur whilst under supervision", though a trained spotter "can greatly reduce this risk". In one US series, 55.6% of injured children had an adult present; yet 8 of 11 severe Finnish injuries weren't seen by any adult, and 66% of injured UK children had no supervising adult. A supervisor helps by enforcing one at a time and no somersaults (our reading).

Sources 1, 32, 3, 5

Where to put it, and how to keep itStrong evidence

RoSPA: on soft, springy ground such as lawn or bark, never concrete or hard-packed mud without matting; a clear zone of 2.5 m around it if there's no net; pads covering the springs and frame; tied down, with the ladder removed when it isn't in use, so small children can't climb up; and no bouncing off. New home trampolines in the UK should meet BS EN 71-14, which doesn't cover public or fitness trampolines.

Sources 1, 21, 43

What isn't shownMixed evidence

Measures without good evidence:

• Nets and pads cutting injuries across the population: not seen in US or Australian data.
• Product standards: no visible effect on Australian injury rates.
• Supervision on its own: most injuries happen with an adult nearby.
• Campaigns to inform parents: knowledge is low, only 4% of injured Danish children's families followed all five safety rules, and emergency doctors and nurses who are parents describe the social pressures around their own children's trampolines. No study has tested a campaign's effect on injuries.
• Rebounding for lymph drainage or "detox": we found no study.

Sources 6, 7, 42, 44, 45

Strength for height: the trampoline study, as it was doneEmerging evidence

14 junior elite trampolinists (10 girls and 4 boys, average age 15) who finished a 6-week study in their preparation phase; they weren't randomly allocated. Seven replaced heavy lifts such as squats with three maximal isometric exercises twice a week: a squat push with the knees slightly bent, a squat push at a quarter squat, and a standing calf push, each against a fixed bar. Each set was 5 maximal pushes of 3 seconds, "as hard and as fast as possible", with 10 seconds between pushes and 2 minutes between sets: 3 sets of each exercise in weeks 1 and 2, 4 in weeks 3 and 4, and 5 in weeks 5 and 6. The other seven kept a standard strength programme, and both kept trampolining.

Time in the air over 20 maximal jumps rose by 2.8%, against 0.2% in the standard group, and isometric squat force by 22.4% against 5.0%; countermovement jump height didn't change in either group. It's one small study, so the result is promising rather than settled.

Source 14

Competition fatigueEmerging evidence

After a simulated competition of two routines and a final, elite trampolinists' jump height was 4.8% lower 24 hours later. An easy day after competitions, and no new skills or heavy strength work the day before, fit this (our suggestion).

Source 13

Growth spurts and training loadEmerging evidence

In 21 national-level trampoline gymnasts followed for 8 weeks, the chance of injury peaked at about 90% of predicted adult height, around the growth spurt, and rose with the past week's training load. The authors advise coaches to spot growth spurts and watch load; our gymnastics page has British Gymnastics' growth-spurt advice.

Source 40

Trunk and shapes (our reading)

No trial has tested trunk training in trampolinists. The tuck, pike and straddle shapes and twisting need trunk strength in hollow and arch positions; our gymnastics conditioning workout and our strength workout below train them.

The pelvic floorEmerging evidence

Leaking is common in trampolinists even with good pelvic floor strength. In female athletes, pelvic floor training raised pelvic floor strength and cut leakage. See a pelvic health physiotherapist; our pelvic floor guide explains the training.

Sources 46, 20

Fitting it around trampolining (our suggestion)

Twice-weekly strength sessions in the preparation phase, as in the isometric study, with the isometric pushes kept and jump volume cut in the last week before a competition, and during a growth spurt. Somersaults and twisting skills only in a club, with a qualified coach and spotters.

Sources 14, 40

RoSPA, UK (current advice, and its 2015 briefing)Strong evidence

RoSPA's advice for home and garden trampolines:

• Trampolining "isn't suitable for children under the age of six".
• Take turns, one at a time: 60% of injuries happen with more than one person on the trampoline, and the lighter person is five times as likely to be hurt.
• Adult supervision is no guarantee of safety, but a trained spotter can greatly reduce the risk.
• Never combine alcohol with trampolining: children have been hurt bouncing with adults who'd been drinking.
• No somersaults or risky, complicated moves unless trained and highly skilled; join a club to learn.
• Pads over the springs and frame, a safety net, soft ground, and a 2.5 m clear zone without a net.
• Tie it down, take the ladder away when it isn't in use, and never allow a bouncing exit.

Sources 1, 21

The American Academy of Pediatrics, US (2012 statement; 2024 family advice)Strong evidence

The AAP's 2012 policy statement: "the home use of trampolines is strongly discouraged", because most injuries happen with several people on the mat, neck injuries come from falls off and somersaults, and safety measures haven't cut the risk much. Its family advice (last updated September 2024) recommends keeping children away from trampolines except with professional coaches and specialised equipment, and says children under 6 should never jump. If older children do jump: one child at a time, an adult always watching, no flips or somersaults, no jumping on from high places, the net zipped shut, the ladder down after use, the bed close to the ground, and pads and net checked every time.

Sources 47, 4

Canadian paediatricians (2007, reviewed 2012)Strong evidence

The Canadian Paediatric Society and the Canadian Academy of Sport and Exercise Medicine: "Trampolines should not be used for recreational purposes at home (including cottages and temporary summer residences) by children or adolescents", and "should not be regarded as play equipment" or be part of playgrounds. Doctors should warn parents at routine visits, because nets and supervision are no guarantee against injury.

Sources 48, 49

What the product standard coversStrong evidence

Suffolk Trading Standards: home trampolines in the UK are covered by BS EN 71-14:2018, which "doesn't cover things like public trampolines, fitness trampolines or those incorporating additional features such as tents or basketball hoops". Their warnings include the maximum user weight, adult supervision, no somersaults and one person at a time.

Source 43

Under 6: the adviceStrong evidence

RoSPA: trampolining isn't suitable for children under 6, because they can't yet control their bouncing; trampolines aren't suitable for toddlers aged 0 to 3, and from 3 to 6 only junior trampolines made for their age and size. The AAP: children under 6 should never jump, at home or at a park.

Sources 1, 21, 4

Bouncing with a bigger personEmerging evidence

Most of these fractures at the top of the shin happened with several people bouncing, and in the first report all seven children, aged 2 to 5, were bouncing with a heavier child or adult. One at a time means no adult bouncing with a small child (our reading). A young child who won't stand or limps after bouncing needs checking: see the warning signs below.

Sources 12, 19, 28, 1

Different injuries from home trampolinesEmerging evidence

Across 11 studies, children hurt at trampoline centres were more likely than those hurt at home to have leg injuries (nearly three times the odds), sprains and an operation (nearly twice the odds), and less likely to have arm injuries, concussions and cuts. US emergency visits for park injuries rose from 581 in 2010 to 6,932 in 2014, with more dislocations and admissions than home injuries, and spinal cord injuries among them.

Sources 8, 50

Injury rates in parksEmerging evidence

In 18 parks with records of how long people jumped, there were 1.14 injuries per 1,000 hours of jumping, and 0.11 significant ones; rates were highest in high-performance areas (2.11) and airbag or foam-pit jumping (1.91), and fell slowly over time. Of people taken by ambulance from one UK park (average age 20), most had sprains or leg fractures, and 20% needed surgery.

Sources 23, 51

Foam pits and somersaultsEmerging evidence

When a crash-test dummy was dropped head first from 1.5 m into foam pits, at least one neck injury threshold was exceeded in every pit design tested. At one park, somersaults and tricks, awkward landings and several jumpers on one trampoline caused most children's injuries, including an unstable neck fracture.

Sources 52, 38

The AAP's advice for parksStrong evidence

Wait until your child is at least 6. Read the waiver and the park's rules, go at quieter times when collisions are less likely, and stay close to your child. Foam pits and bouncy areas can still be dangerous for small children.

Source 4

What the trials foundEmerging evidence

Small trials, mostly against no exercise:

• Older women with low bone density (aged 56 to 83): instructor-led groups on mini-trampolines with support bars, twice a week for 12 weeks, 45 to 60 minutes of balance, strength and bouncing. One-leg balance, getting up and walking, chair stands, arm curls, walking speed and fear of falling all improved against usual care.
• Older men: 8 weeks of mini-trampoline or balance-board training with resistance bands improved balance, fear of falling, chair stands and walking speed.
• Older women: mini-trampoline, water exercise and floor gymnastics all improved balance over 12 weeks.
• After a stroke: 10 mini-trampoline balance sessions over 3 weeks improved a balance score more than group balance training.
• Type 2 diabetes: 30 minutes of moderate bouncing 3 times a week for 12 weeks improved insulin resistance, blood fats and waist size against reading or watching television.
• Young adults: 6 weeks of basic trampoline exercises improved knee strength and balance as much as resistance training.

Sources 9, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57

How hard it isEmerging evidence

Bouncing alone is fairly low in intensity: in 15 men jogging on a rebounder, pumping hand weights of 0.45 to 1.36 kg raised oxygen use and heart rate, and a review reports earlier laboratory data in which weights raised the oxygen cost by 26% to 60%. The authors suggest weights for heart and lung training, and more research on what rebounding does for fitness. The Compendium of Physical Activities has no value for mini-trampoline exercise.

Sources 16, 58, 59

The NASA studyEmerging evidence

The 1980 NASA study often quoted for rebounding measured body jolts and oxygen use in 8 young men walking and running on a treadmill and jumping on a trampoline. At similar heart rates and oxygen use, jumping produced larger jolts, which the authors thought might help design ways to prevent deconditioning in weightlessness. It didn't test fitness gains, and the claim that rebounding is "68% more efficient" than jogging isn't in its summary.

Source 17

Lymph and "detox"

We found no study of rebounding and lymph flow or "detox". The trials measured balance, strength, walking and blood sugar.

Stand tallEmerging evidence

The 7 people with mid-back fractures had been bouncing with a hunched back and little knee bend while holding the bar, and none had been shown how. Stand tall, bend your knees a little, and use the bar for balance, not to lean on.

Source 10

BonesEmerging evidence

In the older women's trial, bone density didn't improve significantly more than in the comparison group, though it rose at the hip within the trampoline group. With osteoporosis and spinal fractures, get personal advice first; our osteoporosis guide advises keeping impact low, such as brisk walking, with spinal fractures.

Source 9

The pelvic floor and prolapseStrong evidence

The pelvic floor muscles fire as a reflex when you land, including on a mini-trampoline. With a pelvic organ prolapse, the National Health Service (NHS) advises avoiding activities that put a lot of strain on the pelvic floor, "like heavy lifting, running and trampolining". Leaking when you bounce is a reason to see a pelvic health physiotherapist.

Sources 60, 61

Children with special needsEmerging evidence

Across 15 small trials in children with special needs, trampoline training improved standing balance, with less certain effects on moving balance and none clear on strength. These were supervised therapy programmes, not advice to bounce at home; our Down syndrome guide covers neck safety.

Sources 62, 63, 64

British Gymnastics and the UK guidelinesStrong evidence

British Gymnastics' concussion poster: "Gymnasts with a suspected concussion must immediately sit out of the gymnastics activity". The UK guidelines for grassroots sport: if in doubt, sit them out; no return that day; assessed within 24 hours by a healthcare professional or NHS 111; a graduated return; and no competition before day 21. Our concussion guide sets out each stage.

Sources 65, 66

Everyone: seven questions

The PAR-Q+ (Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire for Everyone) asks about a heart condition or high blood pressure, chest pain, dizziness or losing consciousness, other long-term conditions and their medicines, a bone or joint problem that activity could make worse, and being told to exercise only under supervision. If you answer yes to any, check with your doctor or a qualified exercise professional first. If you're over 45 and not used to hard exercise, ask a qualified exercise professional before the hardest sessions, and delay if you're ill.

Source 67

Children under 6

Not on full-size trampolines: RoSPA says not under 6, and the AAP says never under 6. RoSPA: not for toddlers at all, and from 3 to 6 only junior trampolines made for their age and size.

Sources 1, 4, 21

A small child with older children or adults

The lighter person is five times as likely to be hurt, and most toddlers' shin fractures from bouncing happened with several people bouncing. One at a time.

Sources 1, 28

Anyone wanting to try flips or somersaults

Failed backflips cause the worst injuries, including neck injuries. Learn in a club, from qualified coaches.

Sources 3, 30, 21

Adults, especially after alcohol or at parks

Adults with trampoline knee injuries had far higher odds of an ACL tear than children, and most adults in a trauma registry needed surgery. No alcohol, low and controlled bounces, and at parks, keep to the main courts until you're skilled (our suggestion).

Sources 29, 25, 1, 23

People with Down syndrome

Our Down syndrome guide explains that the Down's Syndrome Association says trampolining carries a higher risk of neck injury for everyone, and that the AAP advises all children to avoid trampolines unless in a supervised, structured programme.

Osteoporosis or a past spinal fracture, before rebounding

Hunched rebounding has been followed by mid-back fractures. Get personal advice first and stand tall; our osteoporosis guide advises keeping impact low, such as brisk walking, with spinal fractures, and asking a physiotherapist before anything harder.

Source 10

A prolapse, or leaking when you bounce

The NHS advises avoiding trampolining with a pelvic organ prolapse. Leaking is common and treatable: see a pelvic health physiotherapist and our pelvic floor guide.

Sources 60, 20

Pregnant

The NHS advises against sports or activities with a risk of falling or bumping your tummy. Trampolining carries that risk (our reading); talk to your midwife, and see our pregnancy guide for safer options.

Source 68

Young trampolinists in a growth spurt

Injury risk peaked around the growth spurt and rose with training load. Tell the coach about joint or back pain, and follow the growth-spurt advice on our gymnastics page.

Source 40

People with epilepsy

Our epilepsy guide puts gymnastics among the sports where a seizure could injure you but not others; trampolining isn't named, and our reading is that it belongs in the same group. Never bounce alone (our suggestion).

A fall onto the head or neck

If a neck injury is possible, don't move them: the UK guidelines say only healthcare professionals with the right training should. Call 999 (our suggestion). After any neck injury, the NHS says ask for an urgent GP appointment or get help from NHS 111 for tingling or pins and needles on one or both sides of the body, problems walking or sitting upright, a sudden "electric shock" feeling in the neck and back, or weak hands, arms or legs.

Sources 66, 69

A head injury: call 999

The NHS says to call 999 if someone has hit their head and:

• Has been knocked out and hasn't woken up, or can't stay awake or keep their eyes open.
• Has a fit (seizure).
• Has fallen from a height of more than 1 metre or 5 stairs.
• Has problems with their vision or hearing, or clear fluid coming from their ears or nose.
• Has new numbness or weakness in any part of their body, or problems with walking, balance, understanding, speaking or writing.
• Is under 1 year old with a bruise, swelling or large cut on their head, or their behaviour has changed.

Sources 70, 65

Suspected concussion

Off the trampoline straight away, no return that day, and an assessment within 24 hours. British Gymnastics' red flags needing urgent medical attention include getting drowsier, growing more confused or irritable, repeated vomiting and severe neck pain.

Sources 65, 66

An elbow, wrist or arm injury

Elbow, wrist and forearm fractures are the commonest serious trampoline injuries. Go to A&E or call 999 if the arm is numb, tingling or has pins and needles, a bone is sticking out, or it has changed colour or shape or is at an odd angle. Get help from NHS 111 if it's very painful, you can't use it, or the swelling or bruising is large or getting worse.

Sources 71, 21

A young child who won't stand or limps after bouncing

Get it checked: small children can break the top of the shin bouncing with others. The NHS: get help from NHS 111 if it hurts to put weight on the leg; call 999 or go to A&E if the leg is twisted or bent or a bone is sticking out.

Sources 72, 12

An ankle or knee injury

Call 999 or go to A&E if you heard a crack, the joint has changed shape or points at an odd angle, it's numb or tingling, or the skin around it is blue or grey or cold. Get help from NHS 111 if you can't put any weight on it or walk more than a few steps. Go to A&E for a knee that has changed shape, swelled very quickly, or went with a pop or snap.

Sources 73, 74

Back pain

Call 999 or go to A&E for back pain after a serious accident, with pain, tingling, weakness or numbness in both legs, loss of feeling around your genitals or anus, or changes in your bladder or bowels. See a GP for back pain between the shoulder blades, and stop rebounding until you've been checked if it started after you began (our suggestion).

Sources 75, 10

Fainting or chest pain: call 999

Call 999 if someone faints while exercising, or has chest pain that doesn't go away, spreads to the arms, neck, jaw, stomach or back, or comes with sweating, feeling sick, light-headedness or breathlessness.

Sources 76, 77

"A net makes a garden trampoline safe"Mixed evidence

Nets stop falls off, but RoSPA notes they don't prevent awkward landings on the bed, most children in a UK series were hurt without falling off, and injury rates didn't fall after nets came in.

Sources 21, 5, 6, 7

"Supervision prevents trampoline injuries"Mixed evidence

RoSPA: more than half of trampoline accidents happen under supervision. It's the rules, one at a time and no somersaults, that a supervisor has to keep (our reading).

Sources 1, 32

"Bouncing with your toddler keeps them safe"Emerging evidence

Children aged 2 to 5 broke the top of the shin bouncing with a heavier child or adult, and RoSPA says the lighter person is five times as likely to be hurt.

Sources 12, 1

"NASA found rebounding is 68% more efficient than jogging"Mixed evidence

The 1980 NASA study measured body jolts and oxygen use in 8 young men; it didn't test fitness or "efficiency". Bouncing alone is fairly low in intensity.

Sources 17, 16

"Rebounding drains the lymphatic system and detoxes the body"

We found no study of rebounding and lymph flow or "detox", so there's no evidence for the claim.

"Rebounding is gentle, so posture doesn't matter"Emerging evidence

Seven people broke vertebrae in the middle of the back after starting hunched mini-trampoline workouts, and in the NASA study trampoline jumping jolted the back more than running did.

Sources 10, 17

"Trampoline parks are safer because they're supervised"Emerging evidence

Children hurt at parks had more leg injuries and needed surgery more often than those hurt at home, though fewer had concussions.

Sources 8, 23

"Leaking on the trampoline is normal and harmless"Emerging evidence

It's common, and in former trampolinists 76% of those who leaked while trampolining still did years later, but pelvic floor training improved strength and leakage in female athletes.

Sources 20, 34, 46