Sport
In a dinghy, hiking (leaning out over the side with your feet under a strap) is a long, held effort of the thighs and trunk; on big boats, grinders turn the winches; offshore, sleep and the sea are the challenge. Sailors' injuries are mostly backs, knees and shoulders from overuse, hands and heads from the boom and the ropes, and more trauma in the fast, foiling boats. What kills sailors is drowning, mostly after falling overboard or capsizing without a lifejacket.
This guide starts there, with drowning, lifejackets, cold water and the rules, in their own words and dated: the Racing Rules of Sailing (2025 to 2028), the Offshore Special Regulations (2026 to 2027) and the Royal Yachting Association's advice. Then it covers what sailing asks of your body, the common injuries, concussion and helmets, and the strength and hiking-bench training that has evidence behind it, with a gym workout and a warm-up ashore, each with a 3D demo of every move.
Dinghy sailors lean out over the side with their feet under a strap and hold it for most of each upwind leg: in elite New Zealand sailors, hiking took 29 to 66% of upwind time, and strap forces reached 73 to 87% of their predicted maximum. Heart rate rises while oxygen use stays modest, and blood pressure climbs.
Stronger thighs went with better hiking and less fatigue in Laser sailors, and in 24 trained sailors, two extra hiking-bench sessions a week for 8 weeks made hiking more economical.
In the year before the 2014 world championships, 29% of sailors had a low back injury, 13% a knee injury and 12% a shoulder injury, and 58% of injuries came from overuse.
In US Coast Guard records (2000 to 2011), 73.1% of sailing deaths were drownings, 70.1% followed a fall overboard or a capsize, and 81.6% of those who died weren't wearing a lifejacket.
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Each racing competitor is "individually responsible for wearing a personal flotation device adequate for the conditions", and "Wet suits and dry suits are not personal flotation devices". The Royal Yachting Association (RYA) advises buoyancy aids for dinghies, lifejackets for yachts and impact vests for foiling.
The RYA's policy is Recognise and Remove, with a return-to-sail protocol from day 15 and no racing before day 21.
In each body's own words and dated: World Sailing's Racing Rules of Sailing (2025 to 2028) and Offshore Special Regulations (2026 to 2027), and the RYA's safety pages, which are undated and were read in October 2026. No study has measured the effect of these rules on drownings (our search).
US Coast Guard records listed 271 sailing deaths and 841 injuries over 12 years: 73.1% of the deaths were drownings, 70.1% followed a fall overboard or a capsize, 81.6% of those who died wore no lifejacket, weather was a main factor in 28.0% and alcohol in 12.2%. Observers saw lifejackets on 51.6% of US sailors on small day boats and 13.8% on cabin boats, and the authors cite estimates that lifejackets would prevent 50 to 80% of boating deaths. In an online survey, sailors wore one a median of 30% of the time.
The Racing Rules of Sailing 2025 to 2028 (in force from 1 January 2025):
In World Sailing's regulations for 2026 to 2027 (published 5 December 2025), the safety of a boat and crew is "the sole and inescapable responsibility of the person in charge". Every crew member has a gas-inflated Level 150 lifejacket made after 2011, with crotch or thigh straps; in categories 0 to 3, from ocean races to races across open water near the shore, it also has a light and a sprayhood, and each crew member has a harness with a tether no longer than 2 m. Crews practise crew-overboard recovery and abandoning ship at least once a year, and some of the crew must have done survival training within 5 years.
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The RYA "recommends always wearing a lifejacket, buoyancy aid or impact vest unless you are certain you don't need to":
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The RYA: cold water shock is "a real danger in water below 15°C", and the sea around the UK and Ireland averages 12°C. "A strong swimming ability will have no impact on your body's involuntary response to cold water shock." It passes on the RNLI's advice to float for around 60 to 90 seconds while the first effects pass, and advises clipping on a safety line when the situation and weather call for it. Our kayaking page has the RNLI's Float to Live steps.
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Research by the Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB), as the RYA reports it: crews have, on average, "less than 11 minutes to recover a crewmate who has fallen overboard into cold water before the victim becomes unresponsive", and more than 40% of man-overboard incidents reported to the MAIB in 2015 to 2023 were fatal. To prevent it, brief the crew, move along the high side, keep "one hand for yourself and one for the boat", and clip on. If someone attached by a tether is in the water, "the priority must be to stop the boat altogether"; lift them out lying flat if you can, but drowning is the main risk, so getting them aboard comes first.
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The RYA's checklist for every trip:
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St John Ambulance: if they're unresponsive and not breathing, ask a helper to call 999 or 112 while you start CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), beginning with five rescue breaths, then 30 chest compressions to 2 breaths. After a near-drowning, "Medical advice should be sought, even if they appear well".
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Dinghies, from the Optimist for children to singlehanded boats such as the ILCA (formerly the Laser) and two-person boats with a trapeze; skiffs, catamarans and foiling boats; keelboats and big boats, where grinders turn the winches; and offshore racing and cruising. The Olympic classes added since 2000, the 49er and 49erFX skiffs and the Nacra 17 catamaran, brought more injuries, and data on sailors in the newer, faster boats are scarce.
Hiking is "quasi-isometric": a near-static effort of the thighs, hip flexors, abdominals and back, held for most of each upwind leg once the wind passes about 8 knots, in bouts of up to about 20 seconds before a change of position. Hiking-strap forces averaged 73 to 87% of predicted maximum upwind, with peaks above 100%, and the thigh muscles worked at about 25 to 40% of their maximum. It needs maximal strength as well as endurance.
Heart rate climbs into the range seen in endurance exercise, but oxygen use is about half of what that heart rate would mean on a bike. In a 90-minute simulation of windy Laser racing, blood pressure averaged 172/100 mmHg (millimetres of mercury) on the upwind legs, and in junior Laser sailors the heart's output nearly doubled; the authors say this matters when deciding whether someone is fit to sail. Oxygen in the thigh muscles fell by a third during 3-minute hiking bouts. With real racing movements included, elite Laser sailors worked at 58% of their peak oxygen uptake, and children aged 10 to 14 in Optimists settled at about 40%.
Off the wind, pumping the mainsheet asks for arm and shoulder power, and 72.2% of 36 competitive Laser sailors reported discomfort from pumping, mostly in the lower back, shoulders and knees. On America's Cup boats, forward grinding tracked bench press strength and backward grinding tracked bench pull power. Offshore, one solo sailor in the Vendée Globe slept 3 hours 40 minutes a day on average and ran a deficit of 27,900 kcal over 95 days.
The Compendium of Physical Activities' measured values: dinghy sailing 2.0 METs (metabolic equivalents), leisure sailing 3.3, sailing in competition 4.5, and sailing in competition at high effort 9.3.
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The sites the studies point to:
Maximal thigh strength and hiking endurance, back-extensor and trunk endurance, pulling strength for the sheets, grip, shoulder care and aerobic fitness; for grinders, pressing and pulling power.
Studies count injuries per hour or per day of sailing, per athlete per year, or as the share of sailors injured, and surveys ask sailors what happened. Figures in different lines aren't directly comparable.
The numbers, by group:
Overuse back injuries were reported in 29 to 45% of Olympic-class sailors. Low back injuries were the most common in the year before the 2014 world championships (29% of sailors) and the main injury in elite Australian sailors, with 75% of lumbar injuries in the second half of the season and older sailors more often hurt. Our back pain guides cover these.
13% of sailors had a knee injury in the year before the 2014 world championships, and the knee was the commonest injury in 45 Swedish dinghy sailors (19%), 30% of whose injuries happened in physical training. Poor hiking technique and weak legs are thought to make knee injuries more likely. Our knee pain guide covers these.
Shoulders carried the biggest injury burden in Australian sailors, and America's Cup crews had rotator cuff and biceps tendon problems and 8 cases of epicondylitis (tennis or golfer's elbow), with grinders injured most. Hand and finger injuries were the commonest during the 2014 world championships (22%) and the commonest site offshore (28%), and getting caught in lines was a common cause. Our shoulder pain and tennis elbow guides cover these.
In 536 beginners on dinghy courses, collisions with the boom caused 31.1% of injuries and the head was hurt in 32.4%. Concussions were 14% of severe injuries in the online survey, and there were 3 concussions in one season of SailGP. Our concussion guide covers the graduated return.
The skiffs and catamaran had the most injuries before the 2014 world championships, and at one World Cup venue their sailors were referred to hospital emergency departments at a yearly rate of 16% by fleet, against 0.04% in the other classes. Foiling dinghies had 16 acute injuries per 1,000 hours, and SailGP's foiling catamarans 26.5 per 1,000 hours while foiling, mostly to ankles and knees.
In one America's Cup crew, injuries were more common in fitness training (8.6 per 1,000 hours) than in sailing (2.2), and in another, 76.6% of injuries came from overuse. In offshore cruising rallies, injuries ran at 1.08 per 10,000 nautical miles, more on smaller boats and with less experience on that boat; in another survey, 18% of cruises had an injury, mostly from trips, falls and blows.
16% of surveyed sailors had sunburn in a year, and women reported more seasickness on offshore rallies.
The newer, faster classes and foiling; grinders, bowmen and mastmen on big boats; older sailors for spinal injuries; and offshore, smaller boats and less experience on the boat being sailed. For deaths: high winds, inexperience, alcohol and no lifejacket. These are associations.
No injury prevention programme has been trialled in sailors (our search). Lifejackets and the rules are in their own section above; the strength evidence is borrowed from other sports, and each note says so.
Across 25 trials in other sports (26,610 people), strength training cut sports injuries to under a third, while stretching made no difference. No trial has tested it in sailors.
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Stronger thighs go with better hiking and less fatigue, and reviewers think poor technique and weak legs make knee injuries more likely. No trial has tested strength training on sailors' knee or back injuries (our search).
Preventive physiotherapy added in stages over three seasons (stretching and taping; then joint mobilisation, ice baths and kinesiology tape; then core stability, stretching after racing and compression clothing) went with injured sailors per competition day falling from 1.66 to 0.60. There was no comparison group and everything changed at once, so no single part can be credited.
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Pre-season musculoskeletal screening didn't predict which elite Australian sailors would be injured, apart from one single-leg squat result.
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Boom collisions caused almost a third of beginners' injuries. Our suggestion: brief new crews before every tack and gybe, and get low as the boom comes across.
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The NHS (National Health Service) advises sunscreen of at least SPF 30 (sun protection factor), reapplied straight after you've been in the water, even if it's water resistant, and every 2 hours, and warns that water reflects ultraviolet light and increases your exposure.
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The NHS: sit in the middle of the boat, look at a fixed point such as the horizon, get fresh air, and try ginger; don't read or use screens, watch the waves, or eat heavy meals or drink alcohol before or during the trip. A pharmacist can recommend tablets or patches, and patches can be used by adults and children over 10.
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No study has tested whether helmets prevent concussion in sailing (the RYA says no helmet does), whether rule 40 and flag Y reduce drownings, or whether stretching before sailing prevents injury; in other sports, stretching didn't (our search).
24 highly trained singlehanded dinghy sailors (12 men and 12 women, average age 22, national medallists) were paired by their national ranking, and one of each pair was randomly assigned to each group. For 8 weeks, one group added two 30- to 45-minute hiking-bench sessions a week; the other added two upwind sessions on the water in winds over 8 knots. Both groups' aerobic capacity rose, but the bench group's hiking took a smaller share of it in two of the four test bouts, needed less thigh and abdominal muscle activity, and tired later. It was measured on a sailing simulator, not on the water.
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In 55 Laser sailors, maximal thigh strength tracked a 3-minute hiking test closely, and in 10 high-level Laser sailors, stronger thighs went with less fatigue, which went with a better sailing level. Lowering and holding knee strength, and in men back-extensor strength, tracked hiking performance; elite hikers held a hiking bench for 218 seconds against 98 in fit people who didn't sail, with similar aerobic fitness; and elite dinghy sailors had stronger trunk flexors and much more trunk endurance than non-sailors. Sailors last no longer than other athletes at the same share of their maximum, but their maximum is higher, so sustained thigh work belongs in training. These are associations, consistent across studies.
In 29 junior sailors aged 14 to 16, leg extensions, back squats, back extensions and a 30-second hiking hold all worked the hiking muscles harder than a maximal 3-minute hiking test did.
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Racing with real movements took 58% of elite Laser sailors' peak oxygen uptake, and elite sailors' aerobic fitness was similar to fit people's. In interviews with 10 experienced coaches of ILCA sailors, one put training at about 60 to 65% on the water and 40% off it, in cycling and strength work, and they described about five on-water sessions a week of 2.5 to 3 hours. In 10 international sailors, a 14-week winter programme of circuits, strength work and running raised strength, endurance and anaerobic capacity, but the authors couldn't link it to their results.
In America's Cup grinders, bench press strength tracked forward grinding and bench pull power tracked backward grinding, and in 14 elite sailors a speed-focused bench pull programme raised maximum power by 7.8% and improved backward grinding by 1.8 to 6.0% more than conventional training.
Optimist sailors aged 10 to 14 hiked at about 40% of their peak oxygen uptake and 70% of their peak heart rate. Our children's guide explains that well-supervised strength training is safe for children.
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No study has tested tapering in sailors. ILCA coaches want sailors "fresh, absolutely" for a regatta: before a world championship, sessions might drop from three hours to two, so "the volume reduces, but the intensity stays high", and hiking-bench work comes in before a windy regatta if there haven't been many windy days.
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Two hiking-bench sessions a week for 8 weeks when there's little hiking on the water; two strength sessions a week in the off-season and one or two in season (our suggestion); cycling or rowing for endurance; and less volume, with the intensity kept, in the last week or two before a major regatta.
The RYA's pages are undated and were read in October 2026; World Sailing's tool is its edition of the Concussion Recognition Tool 5.
The RYA's policy is "Recognise and Remove": someone who may be concussed "must be removed from the water and advised to get checked over by a medical professional". Sailing concussions come from the boom, rigging in the boat park, and slips and falls. They shouldn't sail ashore on their own, drink alcohol or highly caffeinated drinks, or be left unsupervised for at least two hours.
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Call 999 if someone with a head injury has:
Source 14
The RYA's pathway: total rest on days 0 to 2, then relative rest with a gradual return to everyday activities, work and school up to day 14, then a return-to-sail protocol on days 15 to 21, for which "medical approval is strongly advised from your GP", moving to the next phase only while symptom-free. "The total time from injury to returning to sailing/competition cannot be reduced from 21 days"; over weekends, do no more than two phases a day, and see your GP if symptoms last beyond 28 days. The UK concussion guidelines (2024) advise relative rest, light everyday activity rather than complete rest, for the first 24 to 48 hours; see our concussion guide.
World Sailing's edition of the Concussion Recognition Tool 5: red flags mean an ambulance; don't move a sailor or take off a helmet unless you're trained; and a sailor with suspected concussion shouldn't be left alone for the first 1 to 2 hours, drink alcohol, drive until cleared, or go back on the water, and shouldn't return to activity until assessed medically, even if the symptoms go. A 2025 review notes that this tool has since been replaced by the Concussion Recognition Tool 6.
The RYA: "there is currently no specific standard for a sailing helmet", so look for one tested to the canoeing (BS EN 1385:2012), cycling (BS EN 1078:2012) or skiing (BS EN 1077:2007) standard. A helmet can cut the risk of a fractured skull, but "no-one has invented a helmet that will prevent concussion", and a helmet can add risks in the water: drag on your neck when you fall in, getting trapped if you capsize, and an unconscious sailor floating face down. Even so, helmets "should be encouraged in high performance and foiling boats". No study has tested helmets in sailing (our search).
Built on our warm-up guide and our paddling warm-up (editorial): no sailing warm-up has been tested on injuries. The doses are the paddling warm-up's, with squats from our swimming dryland workout and cat-cows from our trampolining workout; the wall sits are our suggestion.
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The movement on the figure: Wall sit
The hiking hold and back-extensor hold from the hiking-bench trial, heavy legs, pulling, trunk and grip work, and shoulder care. Each has a 3D demo.
3D demoGHD sit-up (glute-ham developer)Expert · An anchor point
3D demoBack extension on a 45-degree benchIntermediate · A bench or box
3D demoWall sitBeginner · A wall
3D demoBarbell back squatAdvanced · A barbell
3D demoLeg extensionBeginner · Strength machine
3D demoSeated cable rowBeginner · A cable machine
3D demoBarbell bench pressIntermediate · A barbell + A bench or box
3D demoSide plankIntermediate · No equipment
3D demoHalf-kneeling Pallof pressBeginner · A band + An anchor point
3D demoFarmer's carryBeginner · A dumbbell + A kettlebell
3D demoStanding band external rotationBeginner · A band + An anchor point
3D demoProne Y-T-W raisesBeginner · No equipmentThe first two are new: a strength workout built on the hiking-bench trial and a warm-up ashore. The paddling and rowing sessions add heavy pulling and trunk work; the technique workouts teach the lifts; the rest add the trunk, grip, shoulders, intervals, balance for older sailors and light exercise after a concussion.
A 50-minute gym session for dinghy sailors: hiking and back-extension holds from a hiking-bench trial, squats, leg extensions, rows, carries and trunk work.
50 minIntermediate14 movesCardio machine, A bandA 10-minute warm-up ashore for dinghy and keelboat sailors: marching, arm and hip circles, trunk turns, wrist work, squats, wall sits and band pull-aparts.
10 minBeginner9 movesA wall, A bandA 50-minute gym session for kayakers, canoeists and paddleboarders: heavy rows and pulldowns, push-ups, wood chops, Pallof presses and shoulder care.
50 minIntermediate15 movesCardio machine, A bandAn 8-minute shore warm-up for kayakers, canoeists and paddleboarders: a march, arm and hip circles, trunk turns, wrist work, band pull-aparts and rotations.
8 minBeginner7 movesA wall, A bandA 50-minute strength session for rowers: back squats, Romanian deadlifts, chest-supported rows, push-ups, side planks, bird dogs and Pallof presses.
50 minIntermediate15 movesCardio machine, A bandA 25-minute beginner rowing machine workout: set the damper, learn the stroke one part at a time, row three easy rounds of 4 to 5 minutes, then stretch.
25 minBeginner4 movesCardio machineA 25-minute practice session for the squat: find your depth on a chair, groove the bodyweight squat with pauses, then load it with a slow goblet squat.
25 minBeginner8 movesA wall, A bench or boxA 30-minute practice session for the bench press: shoulder blade work, push-ups and dumbbell presses, then the empty bar with the safety arms set.
30 minBeginner7 movesA band, A dumbbellA 30-minute practice session for the bent-over row: hold the hinge, groove the pull with your chest supported, then row dumbbells and a light bar.
30 minBeginner8 movesA band, A dumbbellThe McGill big three for the core: curl-ups, side planks and bird dogs, each held for 10 seconds at a time in falling sets of 5, 3 and 1 reps.
12 minBeginner3 movesNo equipmentA 20-minute grip session: warm up the wrists and fingers, train the hand and forearm muscles, then carry and hang to load your grip the way everyday life does.
20 minBeginner10 movesOther / check instructions, A bandA 25-minute band routine for healthy shoulders: move the shoulder and upper back through their range, then strengthen the rotator cuff and shoulder blades.
25 minBeginner12 movesA wall, A bandA 25-minute interval session on a bike or rower: one-minute hard efforts with two minutes easy, building from 4 to 8 rounds.
25 minIntermediate1 movesCardio machineA 40-minute strength and balance session for over-65s, built from the Otago home programme and NHS exercises, using a chair, a counter and a step.
40 minBeginner18 movesA bench or box, Something with weightA 20-minute light session after a concussion: a symptom check, 10 to 15 minutes of easy cycling or walking, gentle bodyweight moves and a cool-down.
20 minBeginner8 movesCardio machine, A bench or boxA 10-minute cool-down for after a run, a class or a gym session: a few minutes of easy movement, stretches for the muscles you used, then slow breathing.
10 minBeginner9 movesCardio machine, A wallTwo strength sessions a week fit the off-season, and one or two in season.
Two full-body strength sessions a week: the minimum that meets health guidelines, with every set, rep and rest, and an 8-week progression.
2 training days45 minBeginner3 days a weekFor after about 8 weeks of a beginner plan: three full-body sessions a week, one heavy, one moderate and one light, in a gym or at home, for 12 weeks.
3 training days50 minIntermediate3 days a weekA 12-week beginner barbell program: squat every session, alternate bench and row with press and deadlift, and add weight each time until it stalls.
3 training days50 minBeginner3 days a weekA 3-day strength plan for men over 40 with power and bone work, two cardio days and mobility, built on research on ageing muscle.
3 training days45 minBeginner3 days a weekA weekly plan for women over 50: strength, bone-loading and balance on 3 days plus walking, built on UK osteoporosis consensus advice.
3 training days45 minBeginner3 days a weekA 12-week exercise plan for over-65s: strength and balance three times a week, short balance sessions and daily walks, based on falls-prevention trials.
3 training days40 minBeginnerThe PAR-Q+ (Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire for Everyone) asks about a heart condition or high blood pressure, chest pain, dizziness or losing consciousness, other long-term conditions and their medicines, a bone or joint problem that activity could make worse, and being told to exercise only under supervision. If you answer yes to any, check with your doctor or a qualified exercise professional first. If you're over 45 and not used to hard exercise, ask a qualified exercise professional before the hardest sessions, and delay if you're ill.
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Hiking is a held effort that raised blood pressure to 172/100 mmHg in a simulation and nearly doubled the heart's output, which its authors said matters when deciding whether someone is fit to sail. Talk to your GP first; crewed keelboat sailing involves less hiking (our reading). Our heart disease and high blood pressure guides explain more.
Our epilepsy guide explains that the International League Against Epilepsy puts solo sailing in its high-risk group, that people with epilepsy are 15 to 19 times more likely to drown, and that a life jacket is wise if you could fall in. Never sail alone. Only lifejackets are designed to turn an unconscious person face up; buoyancy aids aren't, so choose a lifejacket if a seizure is possible (our reading of the RYA's advice).
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Cold water shock below 15°C affects strong swimmers too, and falls overboard and capsizes caused 70.1% of US sailing deaths. Wear a buoyancy aid or lifejacket, learn on a course, and sail with others.
Follow the RYA's pathway: no racing before day 21, a return-to-sail protocol from day 15 and a GP's approval strongly advised before you sail again. Our concussion guide has the stages.
Spinal injuries became more likely with age in elite Australian sailors. Build hiking and back-extensor endurance gradually, as in our strength workout, and see our back pain guide.
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The sea around the UK and Ireland averages 12°C. Dress for the water rather than the air, with gloves and a hood (our suggestion), and see our Raynaud's guide.
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The NHS advises seeing a GP if you've fainted, and calling 999 if someone faints while exercising; losing consciousness on the water is a drowning risk (our reading). Check with your doctor before you sail.
The NHS advises against sports with a risk of falling or bumping your tummy, and dinghies capsize and booms swing (our reading). Avoid dinghy racing and fast boats (our suggestion), and talk to your midwife about calm-water keelboat sailing.
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Call 999 for the RYA's red flags: severe neck pain or tenderness, repeated vomiting or seizures, double vision or severe headaches, growing agitation, weakness or tingling in the arms or legs, or loss of consciousness. The NHS adds anyone who can't stay awake, has clear fluid from their ears or nose, or has problems with walking, balance, understanding, speaking or writing.
Recognise and Remove: off the water at once, checked by a medical professional, accompanied ashore and supervised for at least two hours. Get help from NHS 111 if they're being sick, feel dizzy or take medicine that thins the blood.
Crews have on average less than 11 minutes to recover a crewmate from cold water before they become unresponsive. Raise the alarm and call for help at once; if they're attached and in the water, stop the boat.
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Signs: shivering; pale, cold and dry skin; slurred speech; slow breathing; and tiredness or confusion. Go to A&E (accident and emergency) or call 999 if you think someone has hypothermia. Move them somewhere sheltered, remove wet clothing, wrap them in a blanket or dry towel with the head covered, and give a warm non-alcoholic drink if they're fully awake. Don't use a hot bath, hot water bottle or heat lamp, don't rub their arms or legs, and don't give them alcohol.
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If they're unresponsive and not breathing, call 999 or 112 and start CPR, beginning with five rescue breaths, and send for a defibrillator. After a near-drowning, get medical advice even if they seem well.
Call 999 for sudden chest pain or discomfort that doesn't go away, pain that spreads to the arms, neck, jaw, stomach or back, or chest pain with sweating, sickness, light-headedness or breathlessness.
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Call 999 or go to A&E for a cut that won't stop bleeding, blood that spurts out bright red, loss of feeling or movement near the wound, a bad cut on your face or the palm of your hand, a very large or deep wound, or something stuck in it.
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Call 999 or go to A&E if you heard a crack, the injured part has changed shape or points at an odd angle, or it's numb or tingling; get help from NHS 111 if you can't put weight on it or walk more than a few steps. Call 999 for back pain with pain, tingling, weakness or numbness in both legs, loss of feeling around your genitals or bottom, or changes in your bladder or bowels.
Call 999 if someone is still unwell after 30 minutes of resting somewhere cool and drinking fluids, or has a very high temperature, hot skin that isn't sweating, a fast heartbeat or breathing, confusion, a fit or loss of consciousness.
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Hiking-strap forces reached 73 to 87% of predicted maximum upwind, elite Laser racing took 58% of peak oxygen uptake, and the Compendium's measured value for hard competitive sailing is 9.3 METs. Gentle leisure sailing is light, at 3.3 METs.
Maximal thigh strength tracked hiking performance and resistance to fatigue; at the same share of their maximum, sailors last no longer than other athletes, so a higher maximum is what lets them hike harder.
The racing rules: "Wet suits and dry suits are not personal flotation devices".
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Lifejackets are designed to turn an unconscious person face up; buoyancy aids won't, and they suit dinghy sailing, where you expect to go in and get yourself out.
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"A strong swimming ability will have no impact on your body's involuntary response to cold water shock", and 81.6% of US sailing drowning victims weren't wearing a lifejacket.
The RYA: "no-one has invented a helmet that will prevent concussion". It still encourages helmets in high-performance and foiling boats, for other head injuries.
The RYA: getting back to racing "should take no less than 21 days", with a staged return to sail from day 15.
In Swedish dinghy sailors, 30% of injuries happened in physical training, 17% in sail training and 12% racing, and an America's Cup crew was injured more in training than sailing. Foiling SailGP crews were the exception: more injuries in competition.
In dinghies, hiking works the thighs, hip flexors, abdominals and lower back, mostly in long held contractions, and sheeting and pumping work the arms and shoulders. On big boats, grinding depends on chest, shoulder and back strength and power.
It depends on the boat: the Compendium of Physical Activities gives leisure sailing 3.3 METs and hard competitive sailing 9.3 METs, both measured values. Elite Laser racing used 58% of sailors' peak oxygen uptake, and hiking raises blood pressure strongly.
Build maximal leg strength with squats and leg extensions, trunk and back-extensor endurance and hiking holds, plus cycling or rowing for endurance. Stronger thighs went with better hiking and less fatigue, and two extra hiking-bench sessions a week for 8 weeks made hiking more economical. Experienced coaches still put most training on the water.
A hiking bench copies a dinghy's side deck and toe strap so you can hike on land. In 24 highly trained sailors, two extra 30- to 45-minute bench sessions a week for 8 weeks improved hiking economy and delayed fatigue on a simulator. Coaches use it before windy regattas.
The RYA advises buoyancy aids for dinghy sailing, windsurfing and wing surfing, where you expect to go in and get yourself out, lifejackets for yachts and coastal or offshore waters, because they're designed to turn an unconscious person face up, and impact vests for foiling. Under the racing rules, each competitor is responsible for wearing one adequate for the conditions.
When rule 40 applies, every competitor wears a personal flotation device except briefly while changing or adjusting clothing or equipment, and wetsuits and drysuits don't count. It applies when flag Y is shown with one sound, or when the class rules, notice of race or sailing instructions say so.
The RYA encourages helmets in high-performance and foiling boats, but there's no sailing helmet standard, a helmet can add risks in the water, and no helmet prevents concussion. If you wear one, choose one tested to a canoeing, cycling or skiing standard.
Recognise and Remove: come off the water, get checked by a medical professional, don't sail ashore alone, and stay supervised for at least two hours. The RYA's pathway allows a return to sailing from day 15 through seven phases, with racing no sooner than 21 days and a GP's approval strongly advised.
Cold water shock below 15°C makes you gasp, however well you swim; the RYA passes on the RNLI's advice to float for around 60 to 90 seconds until it passes. Crews have on average less than 11 minutes to recover someone from cold water before they become unresponsive, so wear your buoyancy aid or lifejacket and practise man-overboard drills.
Low back, knee, shoulder and ankle problems in racing sailors, and bruises and cuts to the hands and legs, and blows from the boom, in beginners and club sailors. Drowning causes most sailing deaths.
Exercise education for people who play sport, not a personal prescription or a diagnosis, and clinical review of these pages is pending. Check with a GP or physiotherapist before hard training if you have a heart condition, chest pain, dizziness or an injury that isn't settling, and stop for sharp or increasing pain. Health disclaimer.
