Arm fat is normal
Fat on the upper arms is ordinary fat under the skin. In young adults scanned by MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), women carried about 1.5 times as much of it as men, and where your body stores fat is largely inherited.
Training guide
How to lose arm fat: why arm exercises don't burn it, and what does
Fat on your upper arms is ordinary body fat, and where your body keeps it depends mostly on your genes, sex, age and hormones. Women carry more of it than men on average, and that's normal. Arm exercises don't burn the fat on your arms: in trials, training one arm took no more fat off it than off the other.
What shrinks arm fat is losing fat from your whole body, by eating a little less, moving more and sleeping well. Strength training still matters: it builds the triceps, biceps and shoulders under the fat and keeps your muscle while you lose weight.
This guide explains why arm fat sits where it does, what works and how long it takes, the arm moves worth doing, what to do about loose skin after big weight loss, and the signs that mean seeing a GP.
The short version
Arm exercises don't burn it
In 104 adults who trained one arm for 12 weeks, the fat changed no more in that arm than in the other, and across 13 studies of 1,158 people, training one part of the body didn't take the fat off it.
Lose fat from your whole body
Eat a little less, move more and sleep 7 to 9 hours. The NHS suggests aiming to lose 0.5 to 1 kg a week, and in 116 trials each extra 30 minutes a week of aerobic exercise took off about half a kilo.
Build the muscle underneath
Strength training on at least 2 days a week keeps your muscle while you lose fat and trims a little fat on its own. An overhead triceps extension grew the back of the arm more than the same move with the arm at your side.
Loose skin is common after big weight loss
Most people have some excess skin after weight-loss surgery, often on the upper arms. Strength training builds the muscle under it, but exercise hasn't been shown to remove skin.
Some changes need a GP, not a workout
See a GP if your arms or legs hurt, bruise easily and are out of proportion with the rest of you, or if you find a new lump or swelling in your armpit.
Why arms store fat
The fat and the muscles
Arm fat is subcutaneous fat: the layer between your skin and your muscles that you can pinch. "Bingo wings" and "bat wings" are everyday names for the soft area at the back of the upper arm. Under it, the triceps at the back straighten your elbow and the biceps at the front bend it; our bigger arms guide covers both muscles.
Source 17
Women carry more
In 517 young adults scanned by MRI, the fat under the skin of the upper arm averaged about 258,000 cubic millimetres in women and 173,000 in men. At the same total body fat, women store more of it under the skin, a difference that starts at puberty.
It's largely inherited
In Danish twins, about 80% of the differences in where people carried their fat were down to genes, and identical twins who were overfed by the same amount gained fat in the same places as each other.
Age and skin
With age, fat tends to move towards the belly, while skin loses some of its strength and stretch, especially where the sun has reached it. So arms can look looser with age even when the fat doesn't change.
Armpit fat
The soft area between your armpit and chest is ordinary fat that comes and goes with the rest. A new lump or swelling in your armpit is different: the NHS says to see a GP, whether you're a woman or a man. Swollen glands there usually go down within 1 to 2 weeks.
What the evidence says
Training one arm doesn't burn the fat on itStrong evidence
In 104 adults (45 men, 59 women) who trained one arm for 12 weeks, MRI found no difference in fat change between the trained and untrained arm. Across 13 studies of 1,158 people aged 14 to 71, training one arm or leg didn't take more fat off it than off the other limb, and the results were consistent.
How it's measured mattersEmerging evidence
In that trial, a single skinfold pinch over the muscle suggested more fat loss in the men's trained arm, but MRI of the whole upper arm didn't, and the authors concluded that spot reduction didn't happen.
Source 4
Arm training while eating as usualEmerging evidence
In a larger 12-week programme, 517 young adults trained one arm twice a week and were asked to keep eating as usual. On average, training didn't take fat off the trained arm, and results varied very widely from person to person.
Source 1
Years of one-sided sportEmerging evidence
Children who had played tennis for years carried similar fat on their playing and non-playing arms on MRI, though they had 48% less fat on their tummies than inactive children. The study was tiny: 7 players and 7 inactive children.
Source 22
The small studies that disagreeMixed evidence
A circuit with overhead triceps extensions thinned the fat over the belly, but not over the triceps, in 14 adults. In 16 men, 57 minutes of ab machine work a session took a little extra fat off the trunk, which isn't a practical plan. Fat next to a working muscle releases a little more fat during exercise, but no trial has shown that this adds up to a slimmer arm.
Losing fat overall is what worksStrong evidence
Each 30 minutes a week of aerobic exercise took off about 0.5 kg in 116 trials. Strength training alone trimmed body fat by about 1.5 percentage points across 54 trials, and in an 8-month trial of 119 adults, aerobic exercise took off more fat while weights added more muscle.
Overhead work grows the back of the armEmerging evidence
In 21 adults who trained one arm overhead and the other at their side for 12 weeks, the overhead arm's triceps grew 19.9% against 13.9%, with lighter weights. It's one trial.
Source 11
People respond very differentlyStrong evidence
In 585 adults on the same 12-week arm programme, muscle size changed by anything from a 2% loss to a 59% gain.
Source 27
Loose skin after big weight loss is commonStrong evidence
92.8% of 360 people a year or more after weight-loss surgery reported problems with excess skin, more often with more weight lost and in women. In 64 people, the upper arms were the commonest area (50%), and 96% of 252 people developed surplus skin after gastric bypass.
What works, and how much
Eat a little less
The NHS suggests eating and drinking fewer calories than you use and aiming to lose 0.5 to 1 kg (1 to 2 lb) a week. Our calories per day calculator gives a target if your BMI (body mass index) is 25 or more.
Source 6
Move more
Build towards at least 150 minutes a week of moderate activity, such as brisk walking, cycling or swimming. In the trials, more minutes took off more, with the benefit still rising at 300 minutes a week.
Strength train on 2 days a week
Work all your major muscles, as the NHS advises: a squat, a hinge, a push and a pull, as in our 20-minute strength workout. For the arms themselves, our bigger arms guide's editorial starting point is 2 or 3 hard sets of a curl and of a triceps extension, twice a week.
Include an overhead triceps extension
It works the long head of the triceps at a stretch, and it grew the triceps most in a trial. If it hurts your shoulder, use kickbacks or pushdowns instead.
Source 11
Keep your protein up
Our protein calculator suggests 1.2 to 1.6 g per kg of body weight a day while you lose weight. In 49 trials, more than about 1.6 g per kg added no extra muscle.
Don't crash diet
Across trials, a deficit of about 500 calories a day or more stopped muscle gains, and athletes who lost weight twice as fast kept less muscle. The NHS's 0.5 to 1 kg a week fits.
Sleep 7 to 9 hours
That's what adults need. In a small trial on the same diet, 5.5 hours in bed instead of 8.5 cut the fat lost by more than half.
Moves for the muscles under the fat
These build muscle; they don't burn the fat over it. Overhead extensions at 2 sets of 10 to 12 (our tricep extensions guide), curls at 2 or 3 sets of 10 to 15 (our bicep curl guide) and lateral raises at 2 or 3 sets of 12 to 20 (our lateral raise guide); band rows have their own dose on their move page.
3D demoStanding overhead dumbbell triceps extensionIntermediate · A dumbbell
3D demoOverhead cable triceps extensionIntermediate · A cable machine
3D demoBand overhead triceps extensionIntermediate · A band
3D demoTriceps pushdownBeginner · A cable machine
3D demoDumbbell triceps kickbackBeginner · A dumbbell
3D demoClose-grip push-up (close triceps position)Intermediate · No equipment
3D demoBent-knee bench dipBeginner · A bench or box
3D demoDumbbell biceps curlBeginner · A dumbbell
3D demoHammer curlBeginner · A dumbbell
3D demoDumbbell lateral raiseBeginner · A dumbbell
3D demoBand rowBeginner · A band + An anchor point
3D demoSupported single-arm dumbbell rowIntermediate · A dumbbell + A bench or boxStart easier, then progress
Train the hardest push-up you can do for 8 clean reps and move up a step when all 3 sets reach 15 (our push-up guide). Do bent-knee bench dips at 8 to 12, lowering no further than a right angle at the elbow, before bench dips (our dips guide). Seated curls (5 to 10 each arm) and seated lateral raises (8 to 10) are the gentle start in our chair workout.
3D demoWall push-upBeginner · A wall
3D demoIncline push-upBeginner · A bench or box
3D demoKnee push-upBeginner · No equipment
3D demoPush-upIntermediate · No equipment
3D demoClose-grip incline push-upBeginner · Other / check instructions
3D demoBench dipBeginner · A bench or box
3D demoSeated dumbbell curlBeginner · A dumbbell + A bench or box
3D demoSeated dumbbell lateral raiseBeginner · A dumbbell + A bench or boxMoves for the fat-loss half
Whole-body moves, as in our 20-minute strength workout (goblet squats, rows and Romanian deadlifts at 8 to 12 reps, twice through), plus your weekly walking, cycling or rowing. Indoor rowing and the cross-trainer have starting doses on their move pages.
3D demoTreadmill walkingBeginner · Cardio machine
3D demoStair climbingIntermediate · A step
3D demoStationary cyclingBeginner · Cardio machine
3D demoIndoor rowing (rowing machine)Beginner · Cardio machine
3D demoElliptical trainerBeginner · Cardio machine
3D demoDumbbell goblet squatIntermediate · A dumbbell
3D demoDumbbell Romanian deadliftIntermediate · A dumbbell3D demoSupported single-arm dumbbell rowIntermediate · A dumbbell + A bench or box
3D demoFarmer's carryIntermediate · A dumbbell + A kettlebellHow to measure your upper arm
Steps as in our bigger arms guide, from the US national health survey's measuring method; measuring every 4 weeks and the photos are our editorial suggestions.
- Stand up straight with your arm relaxed and hanging at your side.
- Find the bony tip of your shoulder at the back and the tip of your elbow, and mark the point halfway between them.
- Wrap a tape round your arm at the mark, at right angles to your upper arm, snug but not squashing the skin.
- Keep the arm relaxed: flexing it gives a different number.
- Measure the same arm, at the same spot and time of day, every 4 weeks.
- Take a photo in the same light each time and keep a note of your weights and reps: the tape measures muscle as well as fat.
How long it takes
Strength comes first
Strength rises in the first few weeks, and in small lab studies muscle growth showed on scans by about weeks 3 to 4.
Fat comes off at the whole-body pace
At 0.5 to 1 kg a week, arm fat goes with the rest of you, and the order in which places slim down differs from person to person, partly because of your genes.
Compare yourself with yourself
On the same programme, some people barely change while others double their strength. Your own photos, tape measurements and training log are the fair comparison.
Source 27
No one can promise a look
Nobody can tell you how your arms will look, or when. What you can control is the habit: activity most days, strength work twice a week, enough sleep and a small calorie cut.
Loose skin after big weight loss
Very common
In 360 people a year or more after weight-loss surgery, 92.8% reported problems with excess skin, and for about half it got in the way of daily activity. The upper arms were among the commonest areas. Of 252 people after gastric bypass, 74% wanted surgery to remove skin and 21% had had it.
Exercise can't remove it
Strength training builds the muscle underneath, which can change your arm's shape, but we found no study showing that exercise removes excess skin. Surgery to remove it (an arm lift) is usually counted as cosmetic, so it isn't always available on the NHS: ask your GP.
Look after skin folds
BOMSS (the British Obesity and Metabolic Surgery Society) says physical problems from excess skin, including repeated infections and ulcers, are common, and serious ones should lead to a referral. See your GP or surgical team if folds get sore, red or broken. Supportive clothing and keeping folds clean and dry may help (our suggestion).
Source 38
Skin changes with age as well
Skin loses strength and stretch with age and sun exposure, which is part of why arms can look looser later in life.
Source 20
If you're in one of these groups
Over 50 or 60
Strength training still builds muscle: about 1.1 kg of lean mass on average across 49 studies in adults over 50. The NHS adds balance and flexibility for older adults, and the seated curls and raises in our chair workout are a gentle start.
Pregnant
Pregnancy isn't the time to diet, but staying active is good for you: the NHS advises 150 minutes of moderate activity a week, including muscle strengthening. Ask your midwife before starting anything new.
After breast cancer treatment, or with lymphoedema
Swelling of an arm can follow treatment to the lymph nodes. Follow your treatment team's advice; our lymphoedema exercises and our arm and shoulder exercises after breast cancer surgery are written for this.
Source 43
After weight-loss surgery
Our strength after weight-loss surgery routine starts from about 4 to 6 weeks after the operation, and our weight-loss surgery guide covers the rest.
Workouts to follow
There's no workout that burns arm fat. These build the muscles under it; the whole-body sessions and your weekly walking do the fat-loss work.
Arm workout at home: curls and triceps with dumbbells
A 30-minute arm workout at home with dumbbells: curls, hammer curls and concentration curls paired with overhead extensions, close-grip push-ups and kickbacks.
30 minBeginner8 movesA dumbbell
Arm workout without weights: chin-ups, rows, close-grip push-ups and dips
A 30-minute bodyweight arm workout: chin-ups and rows for the biceps, close-grip push-ups and dips for the triceps, and a bar hang for your grip.
30 minIntermediate8 movesPull-up bar, A bench or box
Arm workout
Biceps, triceps and forearms: curls, hammer curls, skull crushers, pushdowns, concentration curls and dips.
35 minBeginner7 movesA dumbbell, A bench or box
Upper body workout at home
An upper body workout at home with no gym: push-ups, band rows, pike push-ups, face pulls, close-grip push-ups and Y-T-W raises, with dumbbell options.
30 minIntermediate13 movesA band, An anchor point
Dumbbell upper body workout
Chest, back, shoulders and arms with dumbbells: presses, rows, raises, reverse flyes, curls and extensions.
40 minIntermediate9 movesA dumbbell, A bench or box
Resistance band workout
A full-body resistance band workout: squats, rows, push-ups, presses, pull-aparts, band walks, good mornings and flyes.
30 minBeginner9 movesA band, An anchor pointPush-up progression workout
Work up to full push-ups: wall, incline and knee push-ups, then the floor push-up and harder variations.
15 minBeginner8 movesA wall, A bench or box
20-minute full-body strength workout
A 20-minute full-body dumbbell workout: two supersets of squats, rows, Romanian deadlifts and push-ups. Twice a week covers the minimum dose.
20 minBeginner8 movesA dumbbell, A bench or box
Weights then cardio: a steadier-glucose workout
Strength moves first, then 20 to 30 minutes of steady cardio, with glucose checks built in. In one small type 1 diabetes trial, weights first kept glucose steadier.
45 minBeginner11 movesA dumbbell, A bench or box
Chair exercises for seniors: a seated workout
A 20-minute seated workout for older adults who cannot stand for long: marching, leg and arm strength, posture, and sit-to-stands that lead back to standing.
20 minBeginner11 movesA bench or box, Something with weightPlans
The weight-loss plan does the fat-loss side; the others build strength all over, at home or in the gym.
5 days a week
Workout plan for weight loss
A 12-week workout plan for weight loss: three strength days, two cardio days and daily steps, building to 200 minutes a week, with honest results.
3 training days45 minBeginner3 days a weekWorkout plan for women
A weekly workout plan for women: three strength days, cardio and pelvic floor training, with the evidence on periods, pregnancy and menopause.
3 training days45 minBeginner3 days a weekWorkout plan for women over 50
A weekly plan for women over 50: strength, bone-loading and balance on 3 days plus walking, built on UK osteoporosis consensus advice.
3 training days45 minBeginner3 days a week3-day home workout plan
Three full-body home workouts a week with dumbbells or no equipment at all, plus walks and an 8-week plan to keep progressing.
3 training days35 minBeginner3 days a weekResistance band workout plan: 3 full-body sessions a week, at home or away
An 8-week resistance band workout plan: three full-body sessions a week at home or away, with how to choose bands, add tension and anchor them safely.
3 training days35 minBeginner3 days a weekWorkout plan for seniors (65 and over)
A 12-week exercise plan for over-65s: strength and balance three times a week, short balance sessions and daily walks, based on falls-prevention trials.
3 training days40 minBeginnerWarning signs: when to see a doctor
Call 999 (911 in the US)
If you have pain and swelling in an arm or leg and you're short of breath or have chest pain: a blood clot can travel to the lungs. Don't drive yourself to A&E.
Source 44
Ask for an urgent GP appointment or call NHS 111
If you think you have a blood clot: the NHS says the symptoms, usually in a leg but sometimes in an arm, include throbbing pain, swelling, red, blue or darkened skin around the painful area (harder to see on brown or black skin) and swollen veins. Also if swollen glands make it very hard to swallow or breathe. In the US, contact your doctor or urgent care.
See a GP
See a GP if:
- your arms or legs are out of proportion with the rest of your body, feel painful, tender or heavy, and bruise easily: it could be lipoedema
- you have swelling in all or part of an arm that doesn't go away: it could be lymphoedema
- you find a lump or swelling in your armpit, chest or breast
- swollen glands in your armpit haven't gone down within a week, feel hard, or come with night sweats or a very high temperature
Skin folds after big weight loss
See your GP or surgical team if skin folds are sore, red or broken, or keep getting infected.
When eating or exercise becomes harmful
The NHS lists spending a lot of time worrying about your weight and body shape, eating very little food, exercising too much, and having very strict habits or routines around food among the signs of an eating disorder, and says to see a GP as soon as you can. Beat adds rigid or punishing exercise, exercising to make up for eating, and exercising when ill or injured.
Worrying a lot about one part of your body can be body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), which a GP can help with. Beat's helpline in England is 0808 801 0677, and our eating disorders guide has the other numbers.
Myths
"Arm exercises burn arm fat"Strong evidence
Training one arm for 12 weeks didn't change its fat more than the other arm's on MRI, and across 13 studies training a body part didn't reduce the fat over it. Even a circuit built around overhead triceps extensions didn't thin the fat at the triceps. The exercises build the muscle underneath.
"Arm circles and pulses will slim your arms"Mixed evidence
No study has tested them for arm fat. Like any arm exercise, they work the muscles lightly and don't burn the fat over them.
Source 5
"You can lose arm fat in a week"Strong evidence
Fat comes off your whole body, and the NHS suggests aiming for 0.5 to 1 kg a week. Arm fat leaves along with the rest, over months rather than days.
Source 6
"Building muscle burns the fat off while you rest"Strong evidence
Muscle uses about 13 calories per kg a day at rest, against 4.5 for fat. Adding 1.5 kg of muscle, a typical gain from a training programme, burns roughly 20 more calories a day (our sum): it helps a little, not a lot.
"Light weights tone your arms, heavy weights make them bulky"Strong evidence
Light and heavy weights built similar muscle when the sets were hard, and women gain less muscle than men in absolute terms. Our tone-up guide explains more.
"Exercise will tighten loose skin"Mixed evidence
We found no study showing exercise removes excess skin after big weight loss. It builds the muscle underneath; surgery is what removes skin.
Read next
- How to get bigger arms
- How to do tricep extensions
- How to do bicep curls
- How to do a push-up
- How to get wider shoulders
- How to lose belly fat
- How to tone up
- Exercise for weight loss
- Workout plan for weight loss
- Exercise after weight-loss surgery
- Exercise for lipoedema
- Exercise for lymphoedema
- Strength training for women
- Exercise for older adults
- Exercise and eating disorders
- Calories per day calculator
- Protein calculator
- Arm exercises
- Triceps exercises
- Triceps
- All training guides
Questions people ask
How do I lose arm fat?
Lose fat from your whole body: eat a little less, move more and sleep 7 to 9 hours, and strength train to build the muscle underneath. Arm exercises on their own don't burn the fat on your arms. The NHS suggests aiming to lose 0.5 to 1 kg a week.
Can you spot reduce arm fat?
No. In 104 adults who trained one arm for 12 weeks, scans found the fat changed no more in that arm than in the other, and across 13 studies, training one part of the body didn't take more fat off it.
How do I get rid of bingo wings?
The soft area at the back of the upper arm is fat, and sometimes loose skin, and it shrinks as your overall body fat does. Triceps exercises build the muscle underneath, which can make the arm look firmer, but they don't burn the fat over it. If the skin is loose after a lot of weight loss, exercise won't remove it.
What are the best exercises for arm fat?
No exercise burns arm fat, so the best plan pairs whole-body activity, such as brisk walking, cycling or rowing, with strength training at least twice a week. In your strength sessions, include an overhead triceps extension, a curl, push-ups and a row.
How long does it take to lose arm fat?
It depends on how much fat you have to lose overall and where your body tends to lose it first, which differs from person to person. Fat comes off at about 0.5 to 1 kg a week at most on the NHS's advice, while strength starts to change within a few weeks. Expect months, and compare your own photos rather than chasing a date.
Why do women have more arm fat than men?
At the same total body fat, women store more of it under the skin, a pattern that starts at puberty. In young adults scanned by MRI, women carried about 1.5 times as much fat on the upper arm as men. It's normal, not a sign you're doing something wrong.
Can I lose arm fat without gaining muscle?
Yes: fat loss comes from eating a little less and moving more, and you can keep your arm training light. Some muscle under the fat helps the arm look firmer, and muscle grows slowly, so you won't build big arms by accident.
How do I get rid of loose skin on my arms?
After a lot of weight loss, skin may not shrink back, and no study shows exercise removes it, though strength training builds the muscle underneath. An operation called an arm lift removes skin, but the NHS usually counts it as cosmetic, so ask your GP what's available. See a GP if skin folds become sore, red or broken.
How do I lose armpit fat?
The fat around your armpit is ordinary body fat, so it changes with your overall body fat like the rest of your arm. A new lump or swelling in your armpit is different: the NHS says to see a GP, whether you're a woman or a man.
How do I get rid of bingo wings at 60?
The same way as at any age: whole-body activity, strength training at least twice a week, and eating a little less if you have weight to lose. Strength training still builds muscle after 50, and the seated curls and raises in our chair workout are a gentle start. Skin loses some stretch with age, so arms can look looser even as the fat falls.
Can I lose arm fat while pregnant?
Pregnancy isn't the time to diet, but staying active is good for you: the NHS advises 150 minutes of moderate activity a week, including muscle strengthening. Most women gain 10 to 12.5 kg in pregnancy, partly as fat stored for breastfeeding. Check with your midwife before starting anything new.
Why won't my arm fat go away when the rest of me is slimmer?
Where your body keeps fat is largely inherited, and some people hold on to it longer on their arms. If your arms or legs are also painful, bruise easily and are out of proportion with the rest of you, see a GP to check for lipoedema.
Sources
- Orkunoglu-Suer 2008 · Upper-arm fat on MRI in 517 young adults before and after 12 weeks of one-arm training (FAMuSS cohort study, BMC Med Genet)
- Karastergiou 2012 · Sex differences in body fat: the biology of pear shape (review, Biol Sex Differ)
- Malis 2005 · How much total and regional body fat is inherited, in young and older Danish twins (twin study, Obes Res)
- Kostek 2007 · Fat over a trained arm against the untrained arm in 104 adults, measured by MRI (trial, MSSE)
- Ramírez-Campillo 2022 · Spot reduction of fat by training one body part: 13 studies, 1,158 people (systematic review and meta-analysis, Hum Mov)
- NHS · Overweight and obesity in adults
- Jayedi 2024 · Aerobic exercise and weight loss in adults: 116 trials (dose-response meta-analysis, JAMA Netw Open)
- NHS · Insomnia
- NHS · Physical activity guidelines for adults aged 19 to 64
- Wewege 2022 · Resistance training and body fat, fat mass and visceral fat in healthy adults: 58 studies (meta-analysis, Sports Med)
- Maeo 2023 · Triceps extensions overhead against with the arm at the side, in 21 adults, measured by MRI (within-person trial, Eur J Sport Sci)
- Giordano 2013 · Problems from excess skin in 360 people after weight-loss surgery (survey, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg)
- NHS · Complications of weight loss surgery
- NHS · Lipoedema (past its review date: reviewed July 2023, review due July 2026)
- NHS · Symptoms of breast cancer in women
- NHS · Symptoms of breast cancer in men
- Cleveland Clinic · Adipose tissue (body fat)
- Bouchard 1990 · Overfeeding 12 pairs of identical twins for 84 days: weight gain and where the fat went (trial, NEJM)
- Kuk 2009 · How total and regional fat change with age (review, Ageing Res Rev)
- MedlinePlus · Aging changes in skin (US National Library of Medicine)
- NHS · Swollen glands (past its review date: reviewed September 2023, review due September 2026)
- Sanchis-Moysi 2019 · Fat on the playing and non-playing arm in 7 young tennis players and 7 inactive children (MRI study, Front Pediatr)
- Paoli 2021 · A circuit with ab and overhead triceps moves, and the fat over the belly and the triceps, in 14 adults (small trial, IJERPH)
- Brobakken 2023 · Adding 57 minutes of abdominal machine work to running, in 16 men (RCT, Physiol Rep)
- Stallknecht 2007 · Fat release next to working and resting thigh muscles, in 10 men (lab study, Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab)
- Willis 2012 · Aerobic, resistance or combined training and body and fat mass in 119 adults (STRRIDE AT/RT randomised trial, J Appl Physiol)
- Hubal 2005 · How much muscle and strength 585 adults gained from 12 weeks of arm training (trial, MSSE)
- Aldaqal 2013 · Sagging skin and body-contouring wishes in 64 people after weight-loss surgery (survey, N Am J Med Sci)
- Kitzinger 2012 · Excess skin and expectations of body-contouring surgery in 252 people after gastric bypass (survey, Obes Surg)
- Morton 2018 · Protein supplements and gains in muscle and strength: 49 trials, 1,863 people (meta-analysis, BJSM)
- Jäger 2017 · Protein and exercise (International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand, JISSN)
- Murphy 2022 · An energy deficit, lean mass and strength gains from training (meta-analysis, Scand J Med Sci Sports)
- Garthe 2011 · Slow against fast weight loss in 24 elite athletes (RCT, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab)
- Nedeltcheva 2010 · 5.5 against 8.5 hours in bed during 14 days of dieting, in 10 adults (randomised crossover trial, Ann Intern Med)
- DeFreitas 2011 · Week-by-week thigh muscle growth over 8 weeks of training in 25 men (trial, Eur J Appl Physiol)
- Seynnes 2007 · Thigh muscle size after 10, 20 and 35 days of training in 7 adults (trial, J Appl Physiol)
- Kitzinger 2012 · How many of 252 people had body-contouring surgery after gastric bypass (survey, Obes Surg)
- BOMSS 2023 · Overview of GP care after bariatric surgery, including excess skin (British Obesity and Metabolic Surgery Society guidance)
- Peterson 2011 · Strength training and lean mass in adults over 50: 49 studies (meta-analysis, Med Sci Sports Exerc)
- NHS · Physical activity guidelines for older adults
- NHS · Weight gain in pregnancy (past its review date: reviewed July 2022, review due July 2025)
- NHS · Exercise in pregnancy
- NHS · Lymphoedema (past its review date: reviewed March 2023, review due March 2026)
- NHS · DVT (deep vein thrombosis)
- NHS · Eating disorders: overview
- Beat · Physical activity, exercise and eating disorders
- NHS · Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) (past its review date: reviewed October 2023, review due October 2026)
- Wang 2010 · Resting energy use of the body's organs and tissues across adulthood (modelling study, Am J Clin Nutr)
- Benito 2020 · Whole-body muscle gain from resistance training in healthy men: 111 studies (meta-analysis, IJERPH)
- Schoenfeld 2017 · Light against heavy loads for strength and muscle growth: 21 studies (meta-analysis, J Strength Cond Res)
- Lopez 2021 · Training load, muscle growth and strength: 28 studies (network meta-analysis, Med Sci Sports Exerc)
- Refalo 2025 · Sex differences in absolute and relative muscle growth with resistance training: 29 studies (Bayesian meta-analysis, PeerJ)
Exercise education, not a personal prescription, and clinical review of these guides is pending. Check with a GP before starting hard training if you have a heart condition, chest pain, dizziness or breathlessness when active, and stop for sharp or increasing pain. Health disclaimer.