Pilates guide
On the mat, Pilates asks little of your calves: your feet mostly point and flex. They work in standing heel raises and in reformer footwork, where you press the carriage away with your feet and raise and lower your heels against the springs. How hard footwork works them has never been measured, and no study has checked whether Pilates changes calf size.
What does work is well studied: calf raises with the knee straight and bent, made harder over the weeks, build strength, and calf stretches add a few degrees of ankle bend, mostly by changing how much stretch you tolerate. This guide covers both, tight calves, whether Pilates makes calves bigger or slimmer, the Achilles, cramps, sore calves after a class, the warning signs, and classes to follow.
The soleus underneath makes up about half of the calf's muscle volume and drives your body forward as you walk; with the gastrocnemius, the bulge you can see, it does more than any other muscle to hold you up and push you forward when you run, in computer models.
On the mat your feet mostly point and flex. Reformer footwork presses the carriage away 10 times in each foot position, and contemporary versions add heel raises against the springs and "Running in place". No study has measured how hard footwork or the tendon stretch works the calf or loads the Achilles, beyond one volunteer's footbar forces.
Calf stretching adds about 2 to 3 degrees of ankle bend in trials, mainly by raising how much stretch you tolerate and lowering stiffness a little, without lengthening the muscle fibres.
Calf raises build strength and size, especially with the knee straight and the heel lowering into the stretched bottom of the range; pairing them with stretching suits tight calves (our reading).
No study has scanned calf muscle after Pilates. Calves grew with hard sets taken close to failure, about 12 a week in one trial, and they are slow to grow. No exercise slims one part of the leg.
The Achilles adapts to heavy loading over 12 weeks or more, not to light work. Sore calves after a new class fade in a day or two; a snap at the back of the heel, one hot, swollen calf or sudden severe pain is not soreness.
The gastrocnemius, with its two heads, is the bulge you can see; it crosses the knee and the ankle, so it works hardest with the knee straight. The soleus lies underneath and crosses only the ankle, so it works whatever your knee does. Both join the Achilles tendon. On MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) in 13 men, the soleus made up about 52% of the calf's muscle volume and the two heads of the gastrocnemius about 32% and 16%.
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In walking, "The energy produced from SOL accelerates the trunk forward, whereas GAS delivers almost all its energy to accelerate the leg to initiate swing", one computer model found (SOL is the soleus, GAS the gastrocnemius). In running, the two "were the greatest contributors to propulsion and support" in the second half of each step, in a model of one runner. They also steady you on one leg.
The gastrocnemius "is relatively unresponsive to resistance training (difficult to hypertrophy) but prone to atrophy with inactivity compared with other muscles", and calf strength can rise for 8 weeks without any change in size. Calf size is partly inherited, as our guide to strengthening your calves explains.
In 566 adults, "Overall, males completed more repetitions than females (median 24 vs 21). However, older females (age >60years) outperformed older males." Fewer heel raises went with less activity, being female and a higher BMI (body mass index) in 500 active adults. Achilles ruptures are about three times more common in men. Calves of every size do the same jobs.
On the mat you're mostly lying, so your calves point and flex your feet (in leg circles, the side kick series and the hundred) without carrying your body weight. Standing work, such as heel raises, the wall sit and one-leg balance, puts your body weight through them (our reading, as our Pilates for feet guide says).
Classical footwork is "4 Springs" and "10x each position", with goals including "Promotes foot flexibility and strength". One maker's classical manual gives springs "4, 3, or 2" and lists ankle problems among its precautions, advising you to ask a doctor first. Its contemporary guide adds "Flex/Releve" (raising and lowering the heels with straight legs against the springs) and "Running in place", with "Sensitive to ankle, knee, hip flexion, spinal compression" among the precautions.
The tendon stretch is an advanced reformer exercise on "2 outside springs" whose goals include "Deep stretch of hamstrings and Achilles tendon"; our Pilates for Achilles tendinopathy guide says to leave it out with pain where the tendon meets the heel. The jumpboard is hopping lying down against the springs, and no study has measured it.
The only study of footbar force had one volunteer, and estimating the force from the springs was imprecise. For scale, standing heel raises load the Achilles far more than seated ones: "Peak Achilles tendon loads varied more than 12-fold, from 0.5 bodyweights during a seated heel raise to 7.3 bodyweights during a forward single-leg hop", and one-leg raises load it most.
On spring-loaded research sledges, not reformers, people who jumped lying down had lower forces and less calf activity than in hops on the ground. Our reading, by analogy only: footwork and the jumpboard are lighter for the calves than standing one-leg raises and hops.
Our suggestion: a mapping of the reformer footwork series to wall and standing moves, as our Pilates for feet guide maps it, with about 10 of each as the reformer manuals give the series. No study has compared them.
See the movement on the 3D figure: Slow calf raise
Almost no study has looked at Pilates and the calves directly; most of this page rests on calf training and stretching research outside Pilates.
Reformer Pilates once a week for 10 weeks improved balance, mobility and "right ankle dorsiflexion" (upward ankle bend) against no exercise in 55 people aged 65 to 95. In 51 male footballers with unstable ankles who chose Pilates or balance training, "The strength of inversion and plantar flexion did not change significantly" with either. In 32 older women, Pilates improved ankle bend within the group but not more than static stretching; that paper may share its 32 women with two others from the same group, so count it once.
The rest had no control group: ankle-focused Pilates in 22 women aged about 76, the other leg of 10 people after a below-knee amputation, and a feasibility study that only 16 of 47 finished.
Our searches found no Pilates study that measured calf size on a scan or counted heel raises, and none that measured calf work in footwork, the tendon stretch, prances or the jumpboard.
In 30 amateur footballers, a reformer programme that opened with footwork and the tendon stretch improved one-leg hopping more than mat Pilates did, with no difference in jumps.
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"Calf muscle stretching provides a small and statistically significant increase in ankle dorsiflexion. However, it is unclear whether the change is clinically important." That was about 2 to 3 degrees, across 5 trials. Across 77 studies, stretching raised range moderately, and "neither volume, intensity, nor frequency of stretching were found to play a significant role in ROM yields" (ROM is range of motion).
Most people who say their calves are tight have less ankle bend than they'd like, or feel the stretch early. "Most of these studies suggest that increases in muscle extensibility observed after a single stretching session and after short-term (3- to 8-week) stretching programs are due to modified sensation." A newer review of 65 studies adds that longer programmes lower stiffness a little too, but "Neither acute nor chronic SS altered fascicle length" (SS is static stretching; fascicles are bundles of muscle fibres).
In 21 adults, 3 weeks of twice-daily calf stretching raised ankle range 19.9%, and "Muscle length at end ROM increased (13%) without a change in fascicle length, fascicle rotation, tendon elongation, or tendon stiffness". Changes in muscle structure were trivial except at very high stretching doses.
"Chronic gains in ROM are maintained above baseline levels after stretching training cessation", for a few weeks at least, but "Confidence in cumulative evidence was high for ROM gains and low for ROM maintenance".
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Calf raises that lower your heel into the stretched bottom of the range strengthen and grow the calf there, and pairing them with stretching suits tight calves (our reading).
Hold each calf stretch for 30 seconds, with the back knee straight and then bent, on most days if range is your goal; 2 or 3 days a week keeps what you gain (our reading of the reviews). Our calf stretches page has more.
In 14 adults over 12 weeks, the outer gastrocnemius grew 12.4% with standing raises against 1.7% with seated ones, while the soleus grew about the same either way (2.1% against 2.9%). So: standing raises for the gastrocnemius, either kind for the soleus.
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Raises through the bottom part of the range, heel below a step, grew the inner gastrocnemius 15.2%, against 6.7% for the full range and 3.4% for the top part. Footwork that lowers the heels under the bar works the same stretched range (our reading; never measured).
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12 sets a week grew the whole calf 12.0%, against 6.9% for 6 sets. Heavy and light loads grew the calf about the same when sets went to failure, and the 2026 ACSM (American College of Sports Medicine) position stand says loads from 30% to 100% of your maximum build muscle, with no need to go to failure.
Men aged 65 to 81 raised calf strength 21.6% and calf size 5.0% in 16 weeks of heavy raises and leg presses, with no control group. Across 16 papers in older people, ankle and foot exercises raised calf strength a little and improved standing balance, "whereas no effect on falls was found".
In 203 adults aged 20 to 59, "The average number of heel-rises was 27.9" on one leg, and 25 was suggested as normal; larger studies found middle figures of 21 to 25. But "No definitive normative values could be established", so compare one leg with the other.
The NHS strength exercises start with 5 slow calf raises holding a chair, and the NHS asks for strengthening on at least 2 days a week. Our editorial starting point: make the raises harder over the weeks (two legs, then most of your weight on one, then one leg on a step, then a weight in your hand), finishing each set when the last few reps are hard. Our guide to strengthening your calves has the full plan.
No study has scanned calf muscle after Pilates. The one Pilates study with a calf size measure found "corrected calf girth" rose in 28 experienced women returning to reformer classes after a 4-week break, with no control group: a tape-measure estimate that may reflect getting back to where they were. Calves grew with about 12 hard sets a week, with straight-knee raises for the visible gastrocnemius; a class with a set or two of heel raises is far below that (our reading).
An hour a day of calf stretching in a brace for 6 weeks thickened the outer calf 15.2%, but its authors point out that up to 7 hours of stretching a week stands against three 15-minute strength sessions for a similar result. Across 42 studies, stretching's effect on muscle size was small.
No exercise takes fat off one place, and calf shape is partly bone and genes. Our guide to losing calf fat covers fat, swelling, lipoedema and lymphoedema, and our guide to bigger calves has the plan if you want more muscle. Calves of every size do the same jobs, and this page promises no particular shape.
Across 27 studies of 264 adults, training stiffened the tendon, and "the data strongly suggests that loading magnitude in particular plays a key role for tendon adaptation in contrast to muscle contraction type". In 21 adults, only the leg trained at high tendon strain adapted; low-strain exercise "is not a sufficient stimulus" beyond daily activity. Light Pilates footwork probably doesn't change the tendon (our reading).
Across 29 trials, "clinicians could consider starting treatment with a calf-muscle exercise programme"; heavy slow raises matched heel drops at a year, and two well-known programmes did the same. Carrying on running and jumping while watching the pain did no harm. With pain where the tendon meets the heel, a programme that limited upward ankle bend, dropped calf stretching and added heel lifts did better.
"Pilates has not been evaluated in any study to date", a 2023 review says, and a 49-person reformer trial finished in May 2026 with no results posted. Our Pilates for Achilles tendinopathy guide has the plan.
About 15.7 people in 100,000 rupture an Achilles each year, three times more often men than women, and "Approximately 68% of Achilles tendon rupture were sport related", usually without contact, "most often during acceleration from a near-stationary position". Ruptured tendons had already degenerated in a study of 891 people.
Fluoroquinolone antibiotics raise the odds, most of all with steroid tablets, though the extra risk was about 2 ruptures per 10,000 people treated; other risk factors are at "Low to very low certainty". The warning signs below cover what to do.
The NHS says: "Regular calf-stretching exercises may help to reduce cramps but may not completely stop them from happening." The 2021 Cochrane review (3 trials, 201 people) found "A combination of daily calf and hamstring stretching for six weeks may reduce the severity of night-time lower limb muscle cramps in people aged 55 years and older, but the effect on cramp frequency is uncertain", and calf stretching alone may make little or no difference against sham stretching.
One trial found fewer cramps with bedtime stretching, an older one found calf stretching "not effective", and in 2024 stretching did no better than meditation.
No study has looked at it. Pointing the foot hard in leg work can bring on a cramp in the sole or calf: ease the point, flex the foot, and build up foot work gradually (our suggestion). Cramp-like pain with numbness, a cold or pale foot, or pain that carries on at rest isn't ordinary cramp: see the warning signs on this page.
Soreness in both calves for a day or two after something new is common and fades as you repeat it. One swollen, hot or throbbing calf, a snap at the back of the heel or sudden severe pain is not soreness: see the warning signs below.
Ankle circles: 5 slow circles each way with each ankle, morning and evening; seated ankle circles: 10 slow circles each way with each foot (from the move pages' doses); knee to wall: 10 slow rocks per side, daily (the move page's dose), the ankle-bend test and drill in one.
Wall bridge: 8 to 10 reps; one-leg version, 5 each side (from the move page's dose), feet flat on the wall, then on the balls of your feet. Slow calf raise: 3 sets of 15 (our Pilates for Achilles tendinopathy class), 3 seconds up and 3 down, in parallel and then in a small V. Leg circle: 5 circles each direction, each leg (from the move page's dose), pointing and then flexing the foot at the top of each circle (our suggestion).
Seated raise: 3 sets of 15 (our Pilates for Achilles tendinopathy class), for the soleus; tiptoe hold: 5 holds of 30 to 45 seconds, once or twice a day (from the move page's dose), for a sore Achilles; one-leg raise from a step: 12 to 20 each leg, 3 rounds (our calf workout), on flat ground with pain where the Achilles meets the heel; tibialis raise: 2 sets of 15, and heel walk: 2 sets of 20 m (our Pilates for shin splints class), for the front of the shin.
Shoulder bridge: 3 to 5 kicks each leg; side kick: 8 to 10 each side; single-leg kick: 6 to 8 each leg (from the move pages' doses). Flex the foot as you kick forward and point it as you sweep back (our suggestion). Light work for the calves, with the rest of the class still Pilates.
One-leg stand: 2 holds of 30 s each leg, beside a wall or worktop (our Pilates for Achilles tendinopathy class); reach matrix: 3 rounds of 5 reaches in each direction, each leg (from the move page's dose), once a one-leg stand is steady.
Wall calf stretch, back knee straight: 30 s each leg; soleus stretch, back knee bent: 30 s each leg (our calf workout). Downward dog with the knees bent, the mat stand-in for the reformer's elephant: 3 holds of 30 s (our reformer-inspired mat Pilates class), left out with glaucoma or sore wrists. Standing soleus and Achilles stretch: hold 20 to 30 seconds, 2 to 4 times each side (from the move page's dose).
Calf springs: 2 sets of 20 quiet bounces, a few times a week (the move page's dose); ankle bounces: 2 sets of 20 (our foot and ankle strengthening routine, in its optional spring block), only once one-leg raises are easy. Our guide to strengthening your calves covers the spring stage.
Achilles pain during or after calf raises should stay at about 5 out of 10 or less and settle by the next morning, as our Achilles tendinopathy guide says. See a GP or physiotherapist if it keeps getting worse.
With pain where the Achilles meets the heel, do every raise on flat ground and lower only to the floor, as our Achilles guide says. After an Achilles rupture, follow your team's stages.
Our reading, extending that one trial to Pilates: with insertional pain, keep your heels level with the footbar or the floor, or higher. No tendon stretch with the heels sinking under the bar, no heels-down deep squats, no standing calf stretches and no heel drops off a step until it settles. With pain higher up, these are fine within the pain rule.
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No strong calf stretches, no heel drops off a step, and no running, hopping, hills or brisk walking yet: one NHS trust says you're most vulnerable to a re-tear in the first 8 weeks out of the boot.
Mild discomfort during exercise, up to about 3 to 4 out of 10 (this site's suggestion), is acceptable if it settles within the day. Sharp pain, or a limp afterwards, means drop back a step for a few days.
Older age and a previous calf strain are the strongest risk factors for a future calf strain, in a review of 10 mostly high-risk-of-bias studies. If you have strained a calf before, keep the stage 3 strength work going once you are back.
The slow calf raise's page says: "With pain in the ball of the foot or big toe arthritis, stop short of full tiptoe."
Our foot and ankle routine says: "Leave out the ankle bounces with a suspected stress fracture or with heel or Achilles pain, and build up slowly if you have low bone density or haven't done impact work in years." Treat the jumpboard the same way (our suggestion).
If your feet are numb, the international foot guideline advises not walking barefoot or in socks without shoes, even indoors. Do standing moves in shoes, check your feet before and after, and with an open sore keep to lying and seated moves.
The exceptions: pain in one spot on a bone should be pain-free, because it could be a stress fracture; burning, tingling or numbness means stop that movement; and if your feet are numb, pain won't warn you, so check your skin after exercise.
Keep foot and ankle work in the middle of the range rather than pushing to the end (our suggestion, from our Pilates for hypermobility guide).
Stop if you feel dizzy or light-headed. Keep a counter or wall within reach, and have someone nearby for the hardest moves if you've fallen recently (our suggestion, as in our older adults guide).
Our calf workout is the strength class, with knee-straight and knee-bent raises and a step, and our yoga for the calves class adds longer stretches for both calf muscles. The Pilates for Achilles tendinopathy class suits healthy calves too, with the calf stretches added; the shin splints class adds the shin, the foot and ankle routine adds ankle range and balance, the varicose veins class works the calf pump, and our lower body class works your calves with the rest of your legs.
A 25-minute calf workout with a step and a dumbbell: single-leg raises for the big calf muscle, then seated raises for the soleus, with gym swaps for each move.
25 minIntermediate7 movesWall, stepA 25-minute yoga class for tight calves: ankle circles, calf raises, one-leg balance, then stretches for both calf muscles, knee straight and bent.
25 minBeginner15 movesWall, bench or boxA 25-minute Pilates class for Achilles tendonitis: holds on tiptoe and slow heel raises first, then mat Pilates that's light on the tendon. Heels level, no jumps.
25 minBeginner13 movesWall, bench or boxA 25-minute Pilates class with no impact for shin splints: calf and shin endurance, hip and trunk work on the mat, and one-leg balance while you rest from running.
25 minBeginner14 movesBench or box, wallA 15-minute barefoot routine for stronger toes, arches, calves and ankles, finishing with balance. You need only a towel, a wall and a resistance band.
15 minBeginner11 movesWall, other / check instructionsA 30-minute Pilates class for your whole lower body: footwork, bridges, side and face-down work, one-leg moves and a stretch, each with a harder option.
30 minBeginner20 movesWall, other / check instructionsA 25-minute mat workout built on the order of a classical reformer class, with a mat or standing version of each reformer exercise. No machine needed.
25 minBeginner16 movesWallA 25-minute Pilates class for varicose veins and heavy legs: calf raises to work the pump, mat work with your legs raised, side-lying hip work and legs up the wall.
25 minBeginner19 movesWall, bench or boxA 25-minute Pilates class for heel pain: sole and calf stretches before you stand, mat Pilates lying down, heel raises every second day, and short standing work.
25 minBeginner15 movesBench or box, other / check instructionsA beginner's springy session: calf strength first, then heel drops, calf springs and gentle bounces, building towards skipping and pogo hops.
20 minBeginner11 movesWall, stepBoth build calf raises into the week: the runners' plan with a spring stage, the plan for seniors with balance.
A 12-week strength plan for runners: two sessions a week of heavy lifts, single-leg work, calf raises and hops, fitted around your runs.
2 training days45 minBeginner3 days a weekA 12-week exercise plan for over-65s: strength and balance three times a week, short balance sessions and daily walks, based on falls-prevention trials.
3 training days40 minBeginnerThese are the warning signs of our calves, Achilles and Pilates guides, word for word. This is general information, not a diagnosis. A&E means accident and emergency; in the US, call 911 for 999, and use your doctor's urgent line or urgent care for NHS 111.
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Contact your doctor straight away if your Achilles tendon becomes painful or swollen while you're taking a fluoroquinolone antibiotic (such as ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin or ofloxacin), or in the months after. The UK medicines regulator (MHRA) advises stopping the antibiotic at the first sign and resting the painful area until you've been seen; the risk is higher over 60, with kidney problems, after an organ transplant and with steroid medicines.
A sudden sharp pain in the calf as you push off can be a strain. Stop, and see our calf pain guide.
Call NHS 111 (in the US, your doctor or urgent care) for severe muscle pain and weakness with dark (cola-coloured) or reduced urine after unusually hard training. This can be rhabdomyolysis, which can harm the kidneys and needs prompt care.
This site's suggested rule: pain during exercise up to 5 out of 10, back to its usual level by the next morning, and not creeping up week on week. If it is worse the next morning, lighten the load for a few sessions rather than stopping.
Sharp pain at the back of the heel during footwork or a calf raise, rather than a dull ache, means stop that move (our suggestion).
Call 999 if:
Call 999 or go to A&E (accident and emergency) straight away for severe difficulty breathing (gasping, choking or not able to get words out), a chest that feels tight or heavy, pain that spreads to your arms, back, neck and jaw, lips or skin turning very pale, blue or grey, or sudden confusion. If you're more short of breath than usual, or your heart is racing, fluttering or skipping beats, contact NHS 111.
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If you have a heart condition, follow your cardiac team's advice on how hard to work, and stop for the warning signs above. People with long-term conditions may wish to ask their specialist before starting. With uncontrolled high blood pressure, avoid straining against a held breath; the high blood pressure guide has more.
You feel any pain or become unwell, as the NHS advises for its Pilates videos, and especially for chest pain or pressure, unusual breathlessness, dizziness or fainting. If you have a health problem, an injury or any symptoms, get advice from a healthcare professional, such as a GP, before you start.
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The NHS advises getting advice from a healthcare professional first if you have a health problem, an injury or symptoms, or have recently had a heart attack or an operation.
If you have a heart, lung or joint condition, are pregnant or have recently been unwell, start gently and read our guide for your condition. Muscle soreness for a day or two after a new exercise is common and fades as you repeat it.
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Stretching programmes didn't lengthen muscle fibres across 65 studies, and changes in muscle structure were trivial except at very high stretching doses. Calf shape depends on bone, genes, muscle and fat, and no exercise slims one spot; our guide to losing calf fat covers the rest.
Calves grow with hard sets near failure, about 12 a week in one trial, and they are slow to grow. No study has scanned calf size after Pilates, and the one girth estimate came from women returning after a break. Most Pilates calf work is light (our reading).
Range rises because tolerance rises and stiffness falls a little, not because the fibres get longer: 3 weeks of calf stretching raised range 19.9% with no change in fascicle length. Stretching still helps the range you can use.
No study has measured either, and the tendon stretch is an advanced move that our Pilates for Achilles tendinopathy guide says to leave out with pain where the tendon meets the heel. Any calf stretch you hold for 30 seconds does the job, and how you stretch matters little.
Tendons adapt to the size of the load, and low-strain exercise "is not a sufficient stimulus" beyond daily life.
Standing calf raises load the calf and Achilles more than seated or lying work, and grow the calf. A step and a wall are enough.
Calf and hamstring stretching eased cramp severity in one trial, calf stretching alone did no better than sham, and stretching did no better than meditation. The NHS says stretching may help.
Soreness in both calves that fades in a day or two is common, but one swollen, hot or throbbing calf can be a clot, and a snap at the heel can be a rupture: see the warning signs above.
A little on the mat, where your feet mostly point and flex, and more in standing work and reformer footwork, which presses the carriage away with your feet and adds heel raises against the springs. To strengthen them properly, add standing calf raises and make them harder over the weeks.
It can help: stretching adds a few degrees of ankle bend, and calf raises through the full range strengthen the muscle where it feels tight. What usually changes is how much stretch you tolerate, not the length of the muscle.
Unlikely: no study has measured calf size after Pilates, and calves grow with hard sets taken close to failure, about 12 a week in one trial. If you want bigger calves, our guide to bigger calves has the plan.
No exercise takes fat off one place, and calf shape is partly bone and genes. Our guide to losing calf fat covers fat, swelling and lipoedema; calves of every size do the same jobs.
Slow calf raises standing, in parallel and in a small V, seated raises for the deeper soleus, one-leg raises on a step when those are easy, and footwork on a wall. Finish with a calf stretch with the knee straight and one with it bent.
Soreness for a day or two after something new is common and fades as you repeat it. Pointing hard can bring on a cramp, so ease the point. One swollen, hot or throbbing calf, sudden severe pain or a snap at the back of the heel needs help the same day.
Footwork works the calves against springs, but how hard has never been measured beyond one volunteer; in older adults, reformer classes improved ankle bend against no exercise. Lighter springs and slow heel lowers suit a beginner.
An advanced reformer move on light springs, with a deep stretch of the hamstrings and Achilles among its goals. Leave it out with pain where the Achilles meets the heel, as our Achilles guide says.
Maybe a little: the NHS says regular calf stretching may help to reduce cramps, but trials are few and low certainty. See a GP if cramps disturb your sleep, last longer than 10 minutes, or come with numbness or swelling.
It hasn't been tested. Calf loading is the treatment for Achilles pain, so our Pilates for Achilles tendinopathy guide builds heel raises into a class.
Adults under 60 averaged about 28 one-leg raises in a row in one study, and larger studies found middle figures of 21 to 25. There are no firm norms, so compare one leg with the other rather than with a number.
Twice a week for strength, making the raises harder over the weeks. If range is your goal, add calf stretches on most days; 2 or 3 days a week keeps what you gain.
Exercise education, not a personal prescription, and clinical review of these guides is pending. If you are pregnant, have a health condition or have had recent surgery, check with a doctor, midwife or physiotherapist before starting, and stop for sharp or increasing pain. Health disclaimer.
